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learn-more.html
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<!DOCTYPE html>
<html lang="en-GB">
<head>
<meta charset="utf-8">
<!--Encoding for the HTML document-->
<meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1">
<!--Setting the viewport to make website look good on all devices-->
<meta name="description"
content="Ever wanted to know more about dragonflies? If you said yes then you have come to the right place. Explore the variety of dragonflies that the world has to offer and expand your knowledge on these beautiful insects.">
<!--Description of website-->
<meta name="keywords"
content="dungeon, dragonfly, dragonfly biology, dragonfly egg, dragonfly eggs, life expectancy of a dragonfly, dragonflies, dragonflies eggs, damselfly, damselflies, nature, insects, nature, wildlife, dungeonanddragonflies, dungeon&dragonflies, dungeonanddragonflys, learning, environment">
<!--Define keywords for search engines-->
<meta name="author" content="Joshua Chamberlain">
<!--Your lord and master (lol)-->
<link rel="icon" href="IMG/favicon.ico" type="image/x-icon">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="CSS/style.css">
<title>What is a Dragonfly?</title>
</head>
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<h1>Biology & Ecology Information</h1><br><br>
<h2>Life Cycle of a Dragonfly</h2><br>
<article>There are three stages in the life-cycle of all dragonflies. The egg hatches into the
larva (also known as a nymph),
which moults up to 15 times before emerging as an adult. Unlike most other insects, there
is no pupal stage and the
transition from larva to adult is known as incomplete metamorphosis. This is not
necessarily an annual cycle, since the
larva may spend more than a year underwater before emerging as an adult. The adult stage is
usually the shortest in the
life-cycle and rarely lasts for more than a week or two in Britain.<br><br>
<figure>
<img src="./IMG/damselflies/Enallagma cyathigerum tandem 2 Mark Tyrell(small).jpg"
alt="Enallagma cyathigerum tandem by Mark Tyrell" width="50%" height="20%">
<figcaption>Enallagma
cyathigerum tandem 2 by Mark Tyrell</figcaption>
</figure>
</article><br><br><br><br><br>
<h2>Egg</h2><br>
<article>Female dragonflies can lay hundreds of eggs during their adult lives, in batches over
a few days or even weeks. Eggs are laid either into plant material (endophytic eggs) or
deposited loosely into water (exophytic eggs). The former are elongated, but the latter are
rounded and laid in a jelly-like substance which confers some protection.
All damselflies and the hawkers have scythe-like ovipositors and inject their eggs into
plant stems or leaves, rotten wood or mud on or close to the surface of the water. Some
damselflies submerge completely to lay their eggs, often using their still-attached partner
to pull them up again afterwards. Emerald damselflies and Migrant Hawkers inject their eggs
into rush stems well above the water surface, while other hawkers lay into rotten wood or
other debris just above the waterline (see Brown Hawkers, right). The Golden-ringed
Dragonfly lays its eggs by hovering vertically and stabbing its abdomen into stream-beds.
All other British species, including the emerald dragonflies, chasers, skimmers and
darters, repeatedly dip the tips of their abdomens into water, each time releasing one or
more eggs that settle below the surface. <br><br>
During egg-laying, male damselflies, chasers, skimmers and darters guard the females with
which they have just mated, either by staying linked ‘in tandem’ or by flying in close
attendance. Female dragonflies often attract attention whilst they are egg-laying as their
wings rustle against emergent plants.<br><br>
Eggs hatch either within 2–5 weeks or, in the case of the emerald damselflies and some
hawkers and darters, the following spring.<br><br>
<figure>
<img src="./IMG/dragonflies/Aeshna grandis Moses Gate Country Park 20-8-15 A Davies.jpg"
alt="Group of Aeshna grandis by A Davies" width="50%" height="100%">
<figcaption>Group
of Aeshna grandis by A Davies</figcaption>
</figure>
</article><br><br><br><br><br><br>
<h2>Larva</h2><br>
<article>What emerges from the egg is tiny and tadpole-like, and designed to escape from the
egg. In cases where the egg is laid
above the waterline, this ‘prolarva’ wriggles to safety as soon as it hatches and moults
within a few hours. Prolarvae
emerging from eggs laid below the waterline moult almost immediately after hatching. During
its time as a larva, the
dragonfly catches and eats live prey at every opportunity, moulting a further 5–14 times
until it is fully-grown.<br><br>
Larval development typically takes one or two years, but ranges from 2–3 months in the case
of the emerald damselflies
to more than five years in Golden-ringed Dragonfly. Development takes longer in cooler
waters where food is scarcer,
whilst in warm waters, such as those of southern Europe, there may be more than one
generation per year. With global
warming, two generations per year may become increasingly possible for some species in
Britain and allow southern
species, such as Red-veined Darter, to become firmly established. In any case, it is worth
remembering that dragonflies
spend most of their lives underwater and only pass a few days or weeks in the adult
form.<br><br>
All dragonfly larvae have six legs (as do adults), wing-sheaths, a hinged jaw (labium) that
can shoot out in an instant
and catch prey, and the ability to breathe underwater. The labium is flattened in
damselflies and hawkers, but
spoon-shaped in other dragonflies. The appearance and habits of each species have evolved
so that they can occupy
different niches and avoid competition and predation.<br><br>
The larvae of some species are covered in hairs that collect silt or organic debris from
the soft sediment within which
they live. Others are coloured green and/or brown, which helps to provide camouflage
amongst the submerged plants and
algae they inhabit. Species living in bottom sediments have relatively poor eyesight, but
instead use their hairs, long
legs and antennae to sense prey. In contrast, hawkers have large eyes and hunt by sight
amongst plants nearer the
surface.<br><br>
Prey includes insect larvae, crustaceans, worms, snails, leeches, tadpoles and small fish.
Many species no doubt benefit
from the annual abundance of frog, toad and newt tadpoles, which make for relatively easy
meals during late winter and
spring. Water-fleas and midge larvae can also provide abundant food sources, especially for
damselflies and smaller
dragonflies. Of course, dragonfly larvae themselves can fall victim to predators, including
other dragonfly larvae, fish
and waterfowl. If any limbs or caudal lamellae are lost to predators, however, there is an
opportunity to replace them
at each moult.<br><br>
Generally, the best larval habitats have a wide variety of niches created through a varied
aquatic flora, and have
mainly unshaded, unpolluted and permanent water. Few species are able to cope with highly
nutrient-enriched water, but
many are tolerant of acidic water, such as that usually associated with heathland, where
they benefit from the absence
of predatory fish.<br><br>
<figure>
<img src="./IMG/dragonflies/darter dragonfly nymph by neil phillips.jpg"
alt="Darter dragonfly nymph by Neil Phillips" width="50%" height="100%">
<figcaption>Darter dragonfly nymph by Neil Phillips</figcaption>
</figure>
</article><br><br><br><br><br><br>
<h2>Emergence</h2><br>
<article>Unlike other winged insects, such as butterflies, dragonflies do not have a pupal
stage, but progress to adults through
a final larval moult that takes place out of water. Triggered by day length and
temperature, emergence is synchronised
in some species, such as Emperor Dragonfly, which emerge in spring, but is more extended in
the later-emerging species.<br><br>
Final-stage larvae sit in shallow water near the margins for several days, getting ready
for their final moult and
starting to breathe air. Most species leave the water during the morning, but hawkers do so
under cover of darkness.
Larvae climb up robust emergent vegetation, although some may walk several metres over dry
land before finding somewhere
suitable. After finding a secure support, they redistribute their body fluids – first to
push the thorax, head, legs and
wings out of the larval skin. There is then a pause of about 30 minutes to allow their legs
to harden enough for the
next stage, when the abdomen is withdrawn. The wings and then the abdomen are expanded and
start to harden. This process
leaves behind a cast skin, called an exuvia, and lasts for between one hour (in the case of
damselflies) and three hours
(in the case of dragonflies).<br><br>
Maiden flights are weak and typically cover only a few metres. However, in very warm
conditions some species, such as
Scarce Blue-tailed Damselfly, may rise into the air and drift for long distances at high
altitude. At such times,
dragonflies are especially vulnerable to predation by birds such as the Hobby. Smaller
predators, such as Blackbirds,
spiders and ants, also take a heavy toll during emergence. Other hazards include physical
obstructions or rainfall,
which can result in many individuals suffering from imperfectly expanded wings or damage to
the soft tissues.<br><br><br>
<b>Emergence sequence of a Dragonfly:</b><br><br>
<table id="L-Cycle">
<tr>
<td><img src="./IMG/emergence/Emperor sequence 1.jpg">
</td>
<td><b>Step 1:</b>The larva leaves the water and attaches itself to
vegetation.
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><img src="./IMG/emergence/Emperor sequence 2.jpg">
</td>
<td><b>Step 2:</b> The adult then breaks slowly through its larval skin, the head
and thorax exiting first through the
hole just in front of the wing sheaths.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><img src="./IMG/emergence/Emperor sequence 3.jpg">
</td>
<td><b>Step 3:</b> There follows a resting period to allow the legs to harden,
during which the adult hangs down (damselflies protrude forward during this
stage).</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><img src="./IMG/emergence/Emperor sequence 4.jpg">
</td>
<td><b>Step 4:</b> When the legs have hardened sufficiently, the adult reaches up,
grabs its larval case (exuvia) and eases its abdomen free.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><img src="./IMG/emergence/Emperor sequence 5.jpg">
</td>
<td><b>Step 5:</b> Body fluids are then redistributed and used to 'pump up' the
wings and abdomen.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><img src="./IMG/emergence/Emperor sequence 6.jpg">
</td>
<td><b>Step 6:</b> When fully expanded, the adult is about twice as long as the
larval skin.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><img src="./IMG/emergence/Emperor sequence 7.jpg">
</td>
<td><b>Step 7:</b> After a further hour or so the wings, though still reflective,
have hardened sufficiently for the
teneral adult to take its maiden flight.</td>
</tr>
</table>
</article> <br><br><br><br><br><br>
<h2>Adult:</h2><br>
<article>Newly-emerged adult dragonflies, known as tenerals, are a pale green colour at
first,
with only hints of the final adult
patterning. Their wings remain very reflective for a couple of days and the flight
is weak
and fluttery. As the body and
wings harden off, they begin hunting for food whenever fine weather permits. They
spend
about a week, depending on the
weather, feeding away from water and gradually acquire adult colouration and sexual
maturity.<br><br>
When mature, adults move back to the water to breed. The males of some species,
notably
dragonflies, are territorial and
battle constantly to obtain and defend a suitable length of water’s edge. They
investigate
any potential interloper and
especially females, which they will try to seize and mate. The number of adults
found at
water is determined by the
species’ territorial behaviour. Territorial species are always found in smaller
numbers
than gregarious species, such as
the blue damselflies, which may be present in hordes.<br><br>
Mating in dragonflies is unique. The male first transfers sperm from near the tip
of his
abdomen to accessory genitalia
under the front. He then grasps a female by the ‘scruff of her neck’ with the anal
appendages (or ‘claspers’) at the tip
of his abdomen: the pair is then said to be ‘in tandem’. If the mood takes her, the
female
curls the tip of her abdomen
to meet the male’s accessory genitalia and sperm is transferred; this position is
known as
‘the wheel’, or technically
in copula. In some species, such as the chasers, the whole mating process takes
only a few
seconds; at the other
extreme, Blue-tailed Damselflies take up to six hours.<br><br>
Cross-breeding between different species is prevented by species-specific
combinations of
the shapes of the male’s anal
claspers and the rear of the female’s head (in dragonflies) or pronotum (in
damselflies).
Although virtually impossible
to see in the field, these can provide conclusive proof of identity in some
difficult
species (as does wing venation).<br><br>
Egg-laying occurs soon after mating. Females that lay alone frequently have
difficulty
avoiding the attentions of males
and therefore may choose to lay during poorer weather, even in rain.<br><br>
Adult dragonflies are most active between mid-morning and mid-afternoon, when
temperatures
are highest. In Britain,
flight is generally restricted to sunny weather, when the flight muscles in the
thorax are
sufficiently warm. This is
especially the case for species that spend most of their time perched.
Alternatively, a
tactic used by hawkers,
especially females (allowing them to lay eggs during cooler weather), is to
generate heat
in the flight muscles by
vibrating their wings. Generally, though, dragonflies seem to disappear in wet or
cool
cloudy conditions. In reality,
they sit still and well hidden amongst vegetation, often hanging under leaves in
trees.<br><br>
The life-expectancy of adults is short, typically no more than a week or two, but
exceptionally 6–8 weeks. <br><br>
<figure>
<img src="./IMG/dragonflies/Aeshna juncea tandem 1 David Kitching(small).jpg"
alt="Adult Aeshna juncea tandem by David Kitching" width="50%" height="70%">
<figcaption>Adult Aeshna juncea tandem by David Kitching</figcaption>
</figure>
</article>
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