Relationship-Between-Travel-Behavior-and-Mental-Health.tex

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\journal{Transportation Research Part A}
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  pdftitle={Relationship Between Travel Behavior and Mental Health},
  pdfauthor={Gregory S. Macfarlane; Emily Kae Youngs},
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\begin{frontmatter}
\title{Relationship Between Travel Behavior and Mental Health}
\author[1]{Gregory S. Macfarlane%
%
}
 \ead{gregmacfarlane@gmail.com} 
\author[1]{Emily Kae Youngs%
%
}
 \ead{ekblnchrd@gmail.com} 

\affiliation[1]{organization={Civil and Construction Engineering
Department, Brigham Young University},addressline={430
EB},city={Provo},postcode={84602},postcodesep={}}

\cortext[cor1]{Corresponding author}


        
\begin{abstract}
The abstract is a crucial component of any scientific paper, as it
provides a summary of the research and its main findings. This paper
provides guidelines for writing an effective scientific abstract. The
first step is to identify the key elements of the research, such as the
research question, methods, results, and conclusions. Next, the abstract
should be written in a clear and concise manner, using simple language
and avoiding technical jargon. The abstract should also be structured,
with a clear introduction, methods section, results section, and
conclusion. Additionally, the abstract should accurately and succinctly
convey the main findings of the research, highlighting the significance
and implications of the work. By following these guidelines, researchers
can ensure that their abstract effectively communicates the key aspects
of their research and attracts the attention of potential readers. -
Written by ChatGPT
\end{abstract}





\end{frontmatter}
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\hypertarget{preface}{%
\section*{Preface}\label{preface}}
\addcontentsline{toc}{section}{Preface}

\markboth{Preface}{Preface}

This is a template repository that I and my students can use to start
projects that will implement the workflow presented in my
\href{https://gregmacfarlane.github.io/lab/workflow.html}{lab
documentation}. It also serves as an instruction manual in this
workflow, a template article, and a sandbox for me to practice and
learn. I encourage students to use the
\href{https://quarto.org/docs/guide/}{Quarto Guide} as their primary
reference.

The document in this template renders to two\footnote{I hope to make it
  possible to render the article to a BYU Engineering thesis as well.
  Give me a bit of time.} outputs:

\begin{itemize}
\item
  A website
\item
  An Elsevier journal article
\end{itemize}

To render this document, use the command \texttt{quarto\ render} in your
terminal pointed at the working directory. This will create a website
available locally in a \texttt{\_book} folder and a PDF of the article
stored in that folder.

To render your website \emph{and} push its content to a live website,
use the command \texttt{quarto\ publish\ gh-pages}. Details of this
process are available on the
\href{https://quarto.org/docs/publishing/github-pages.html\#publish-command}{Quarto
guide}.

You can change the article to a different publisher by following the
directions at the \href{https://github.com/quarto-journals}{Quarto
Journal Templates GitHub} repository.

\bookmarksetup{startatroot}

\hypertarget{introduction}{%
\section{Introduction}\label{introduction}}

\hypertarget{purpose}{%
\subsection{Purpose}\label{purpose}}

Mental health is a crucial component of holistic well-being,
encompassing emotional, psychological, and social dimensions. The World
Health Organization (WHO) defines mental health as ``a state of
well-being in which an individual realizes their own abilities, can cope
with the normal stresses of life, can work productively, and is able to
contribute to their community'' \citep{MentalHealthPAHO}. Mental health
plays a critical role in shaping individuals' overall well-being and
influences various aspects of daily life, including personal
relationships, work productivity, and lifestyle choices.

Mental health has been under increasing strain, partially due to the
effects of urbanization and the recent COVID-19 pandemic. Lockdowns and
social distancing measures restricted access to the natural environment
and drastically affected travel habits which brought up additional
interest in the connection between individual travel behavior and mental
health \citep{pousoContactBluegreenSpaces2021}. Recent research supports
that there are beneficial effects of contact with green and blue spaces
on mental health. These spaces are associated with reduced stress,
anxiety, and improved mood and cognitive function
\citep{pousoContactBluegreenSpaces2021, whiteAssociationsGreenBlue2021}.
Furthermore, social isolation and exclusion have been linked to travel
behavior and can negatively impact well-being
\citep{delboscExploringRelativeInfluences2011, stanleyMobilitySocialExclusion2011}.
Recognizing mental health as a key component of overall well-being
motivates the need to analyze the relationship between mental health and
travel behavior.~

Determining the relationship between individual travel behavior and
their mental well-being can offer valuable insights for those
susceptible to mental health challenges By understanding the impact of
travel behavior on one's mental health, people can make informed choices
to travel in a way to promote good mental health, avoiding travel
behavior that may be detrimental to their mental health. Travel behavior
encapsulates the patterns, choices, and experiences related to
individuals' movements from their origin to destination. These travel
behaviors include factors such as the number of trips made on a given
day and the specific locations where activities occur can influence
individual mental health outcomes. Understanding how these travel
patterns align with mental health is crucial for designing interventions
that foster positive well-being and enhance the quality of life.~

To establish these connections between travel behavior and mental
health, it is essential to gather location data for individuals
alongside information about their mental well-being. Since raw GPS data
lacks details about the nature of activities or travel, the GPS data
needs to be transformed into daily activity patterns and trip types.
When paired with reported mental health and mood information, this trip
data forms a powerful data set, enabling the analysis of the intricate
relationship between mental well-being and travel behavior by exploring
the interconnectedness of travel patterns and overall wellness.

\hypertarget{scope}{%
\subsection{Scope}\label{scope}}

\citet{lanDailySpacetimeActivities2022} explored the connection between
daily activities, environmental exposures, and anxiety symptoms using
mobile phone-based sensing. Their study identified that activities in
different environmental settings can impact anxiety levels, with air
pollution and noise associated with higher anxiety, while green spaces,
physical activity, and social interaction were linked to lower anxiety.
It is important to understand how an individual's daily travel behavior
can affect the individual's mental health. In this research, we pair a
longitudinal survey of mental health collected via a mobile device
application with location-based services information on the same device.
This unique data set allows us to investigate the relationship between
changing mental health and changing travel behavior. Understanding the
nuanced connections between mental health and travel can inform targeted
interventions to address mental health challenges and enhance
individuals' overall life satisfaction.

Data for this study come from a longitudinal treatment experiment where
78 study volunteers completed a regular attitudinal survey administered
via a mobile device application. This application also collected
cellular location-based services (LBS) data from the same individuals,
who live in Utah County, Utah. The data was collected for 1 to 6 months.
The participants provided metal health information by answering surveys
in the mornings and evenings. Questions included: ``Have you felt
stressed since you last took a survey?'', ``How would you rate your
overall sleep quality last night?'', and ``Have you thought about
killing yourself in the past 12 hours or since you last took a survey?''
among others. Each of the 78 participants was assigned to one of three
groups based on a psychological evaluation: control, social anxiety, and
autism. This allows the data set to be beneficial to see not only how
individual travel behavior affects mental wellness, but specifically how
travel behavior affects individuals from neurodiverse groups and vice
versa. The LBS data were distilled into semantic activities and
locations using a DBSCAN-TE algorithm \citep{riches2022}.

After joining together the semantic activities and the responses to the
surveys, statistical models were created to investigate both sides of
the relationship between mental health and travel behavior.~ Using the
Poisson Model, we explore how mental health influences the number of
activities individuals undertake. This model incorporates demographic
attributes and mental health responses as independent variables, aiming
to quantify the influence of mental health on trip frequency. The number
of trips serve as the dependent variable. \textbf{We also include a
longitudinal analysis where we examine the relationship between a
person's daily travel behavior and their mental health status a week
later.} Using either a linear regression or a logit choice model, our
exploration focuses on understanding how travel behavior shapes mental
health or mood. Factors considered may include the specific location of
activities and the overall number of activities. These variables are
used to predict the mental health outcomes through either a linear
regression or logit choice model. The identification of a relationship
between travel behavior and mental health has the potential to open up
therapeutic and mitigative activities for individuals suffering from
depression and suicidality.

\hypertarget{outline}{%
\subsection{Outline}\label{outline}}

This thesis will begin by exploring the significance of mental health
and its correlation with travel behavior, specifically focusing on the
types of activities that a person's participated in throughout the day.
Subsequently, it will outline the techniques employed to identify the
activities and journeys of the 78 participants, utilizing the DBSCAN-TE
algorithm \citep{riches2022} . The discussion will encompass the data
cleaning process and the compilation of the final dataset containing
information on trips and mental health. Following this, the thesis will
delve into the creation and analysis of models, shedding light on the
insights they provide into the relationship between mental health and
individual travel behavior. A subsequent section will merge discussions
on travel patterns and mental health outcomes, addressing how to
navigate the implications of the newfound information. The conclusion
will feature suggestions for future research, a reflection on the
study's limitations, and a summary of the key findings.

\bookmarksetup{startatroot}

\hypertarget{literature-review}{%
\section{Literature Review}\label{literature-review}}

\textbf{Mental health is a crucial aspect of overall well-being and
mental health is decreasing (as urbanization is increasing, as a result
of COVID-19).}

Mental health is a complex issue that can be influenced by various
factors, including social, economic, and environmental factors.
Addressing the determinants of positive mental health is crucial in
promoting well-being \citep{barryAddressingDeterminantsPositive2009}.
The relationship between natural environments and positive mental health
has been a topic of interest for researchers for decades and has worked
towards addressing the determinants of positive mental health. Barry
reviews the determinants of positive mental health, emphasizing the
importance of social support and social connectedness, a sense of
control and autonomy, self-esteem, and meaning and purpose in life. She
argues that mental health promotion should focus on building resilience,
enhancing positive emotions, and developing skills and competencies to
manage adversity \citep{barryAddressingDeterminantsPositive2009} .
\citet{whiteAssociationsGreenBlue2021} adds that poor mental health
creates more of a challenge for those in high-income countries which may
be a consequence of urbanization and lack of natural environment.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, access to natural environments became more
limited for many people due to lock downs and social distancing
measures. However, a study conducted by
\citet{pousoContactBluegreenSpaces2021} found that contact with
blue-green spaces during the pandemic lock down was beneficial for
mental health. The study was conducted in Spain and surveyed individuals
who had access to blue-green spaces, such as coastal areas or parks,
during the lock down. The results showed that those who had contact with
these spaces reported lower levels of stress and anxiety. Similarly,
additional research supports the idea that access to natural
environments can contribute to positive mental health outcomes,
independent of the COVID-19 pandemic. A study conducted by
\citet{whiteAssociationsGreenBlue2021} investigated the associations
between green and blue spaces and mental health across 18 countries. The
study found that individuals who had access to more green and blue
spaces reported higher levels of mental health and well-being.
Specifically, exposure to green spaces was associated with lower levels
of depression and anxiety, while exposure to blue spaces was associated
with improved mood and cognitive function. Access to green and blue
spaces could serve as a coping strategy during stressful situations like
pandemics.

Overall, the research suggests that access to natural environments can
have a positive impact on mental health and well-being. These findings
have important implications for mental health promotion and urban
planning. Providing individuals with access to green and blue spaces can
promote positive mental health outcomes, particularly during times of
stress and adversity such as the COVID-19 pandemic.

\textbf{Social isolation or social exclusion is affected by one's
ability to travel and in turn affects mental health.}

\citet{stanleyMobilitySocialExclusion2011} investigates the link between
mobility, social exclusion, and well-being. The authors conducted a
survey among residents of Melbourne, Australia, to analyze the impact of
social exclusion on well-being and how mobility can mediate this
relationship. The study found that mobility can improve well-being and
reduce social exclusion, which can have a positive impact on individual
mental health. Similarly, \citet{delboscExploringRelativeInfluences2011}
explored the influence of transport disadvantage and social exclusion on
well-being. The authors used data from a survey of individuals in
Melbourne, Australia, to examine the relationship between transport
disadvantage and well-being, as well as the relationship between social
exclusion and well-being. The study found that both transport
disadvantage and social exclusion can negatively affect well-being, with
social exclusion having a stronger impact. The ability and choice to
make trips affects well-being and mental health of individuals.

When looking specifically at the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic,
\citet{loadesRapidSystematicReview2020} , focused on the impact of
social isolation and loneliness on the mental health of children and
adolescents. The authors conducted a rapid systematic review of existing
literature on the topic and found that social isolation and loneliness
can have a negative impact on mental health, including increased
symptoms of anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder.

Overall, these articles suggest that social exclusion and isolation,
transport disadvantage, and loneliness can negatively impact individual
well-being and mental health. On the other hand, mobility and contact
with others can have a positive impact on individual well-being. These
findings highlight the importance of social support networks, access to
transportation, and the need to address social exclusion and isolation
to promote individual well-being and mental health.

\textbf{The environment in which people live and interact affects their
mental health.} (built environment)

In recent years, a growing body of research has explored the
relationship between the built environment and mental health. Several
studies have explored the association between the built environment and
mental health
\citep{pelgrimsAssociationUrbanEnvironment2021, whiteAssociationsGreenBlue2021, rautioLivingEnvironmentIts2018, pousoContactBluegreenSpaces2021, gasconLongtermExposureResidential2018, engemann2019, hoisingtonTenQuestionsConcerning2019}.
The findings of these studies specifically investigate the association
between the urban environment, green and blue spaces, and mental health.

\citet{pelgrimsAssociationUrbanEnvironment2021} conducted a study in
Brussels, Belgium, to investigate the association between the urban
environment and mental health. The study found that exposure to noise
pollution, air pollution, and lack of green space were associated with
higher levels of depressive symptoms and stress. In contrast, living
close to green space was associated with lower levels of stress and
depressive symptoms. Similarly, \citet{whiteAssociationsGreenBlue2021}
conducted a cross-country study in 18 countries to investigate the
relationship between green and blue spaces and mental health. The study
found that exposure to green and blue spaces was associated with better
mental health outcomes, including lower levels of stress, anxiety, and
depression. In addition, \citet{pousoContactBluegreenSpaces2021}
investigated the impact of contact with blue-green spaces during the
COVID-19 pandemic lock down on mental health. The study found that
individuals who had more contact with blue-green spaces reported better
mental health outcomes, including lower levels of stress and anxiety.

\citet{rautioLivingEnvironmentIts2018} conducted a systematic review of
the literature on the relationship between the living environment and
depressive mood. The review found that several environmental factors,
including noise pollution, air pollution, and lack of green space, were
associated with higher levels of depressive symptoms. The review also
found that access to green spaces, such as parks and gardens, was
associated with lower levels of depressive symptoms. In addition to the
literature review by \citet{rautioLivingEnvironmentIts2018},
\citet{gasconLongtermExposureResidential2018} conducted a
cross-sectional study to investigate the relationship between long-term
exposure to residential green and blue spaces and anxiety and depression
in adults. The study found that exposure to green and blue spaces was
associated with lower levels of anxiety and depression in adults.

\citet{engemann2019} conducted a study to investigate the relationship
between residential green space in childhood and the risk of psychiatric
disorders from adolescence into adulthood. The study found that
individuals who grew up in areas with more residential green space had a
lower risk of developing psychiatric disorders. This may indicate that
having access to green space can affect one's mental health in the
future.

Overall, the literature suggests that exposure to green and blue spaces
is associated with better mental health outcomes, while exposure to
noise and air pollution is associated with higher levels of stress,
anxiety, and depression. \citet{hoisingtonTenQuestionsConcerning2019}
reviewed the literature on the relationship between the built
environment and mental health and identified ten questions concerning
this relationship. Their review highlighted the need for further
research to understand the complex interactions between the built
environment and mental health outcomes.

\textbf{Types of activities or travel affect people's mental health
differently.}

Travel behavior has been recognized as a significant factor influencing
social and mental health among individuals. The following discussion
aims to explore the relationship between travel behavior and mental
well-being outcomes by analyzing findings from four relevant studies.

\citet{syahputriEffectTravelSatisfaction2022} conducted a study in the
Bandung Metropolitan area to investigate the effect of travel
satisfaction and activity-travel patterns of other household members on
social and mental health. This model showed that those who stay at home
to work, or study tend to experience high travel satisfaction and in
turn high social and mental health. These people appreciate the time
that they spend outside of the home, which results in an increase in
their social and mental health. However, if people spend too much time
at home studying or working, then they typically experience lower mental
health because they are unable to interact with others outside of the
home. But when these people have the opportunity to leave the home to
travel, they experience better travel satisfaction and in turn better
social and mental health. Similarly, \citet{frimanHowDoesTravel2017}
investigated how travel affects emotional well-being and life
satisfaction. They pointed out that those who regularly traveled to work
experienced less life satisfaction than those who worked from home.
However, the study revealed a positive association between travel and
emotional well-being, indicating that travel experiences contribute to
improved mood and overall life satisfaction.

When exploring the relationship between gender, mental health, and
travel, \citet{mackettGenderMentalHealth2022} conducted a comprehensive
study. The study found that women tend to experience higher levels of
mental health issues related to travel, such as anxiety and stress, due
to various factors, including route finding, safety concerns, and
interacting with others. In another study
\citet{mackettMentalHealthTravel2021} explored the relationship between
mental health and travel behavior. The study found that travel behavior,
such as active travel (e.g., walking or cycling) and public
transportation use, was associated with better mental health outcomes,
including reduced stress and improved well-being.
\citet{mackettMentalHealthTravel2021} pointed at that the ``relationship
between mental health and travel is complex'' because mental health
issues can affect one's ability to travel and travel can worsen mental
health issues.

The reviewed studies highlight the significant influence of travel
behavior on social and mental health outcomes. Factors such as travel
satisfaction, activity-travel patterns of household members, and gender
differences play crucial roles in shaping these outcomes. Positive
travel experiences are associated with improved emotional well-being and
life satisfaction. However, it is essential to consider the potential
challenges and disparities faced by different genders in relation to
mental health and travel.

\textbf{Recently, a group used mobile phone-based sensing to look at
daily activities and environmental exposures and the connection to
anxiety symptoms.}

The article by \citet{lanDailySpacetimeActivities2022} investigates the
relationship between daily space-time activities, multiple environmental
exposures, and anxiety symptoms. The study utilizes a cross-sectional
mobile phone-based sensing approach to gather data. The goal was to
understand how individuals' activities in different environmental
settings contribute to their anxiety levels.

The study collected data from participants using mobile phone sensors,
including GPS and accelerometers, to track their spatial movements and
activity patterns. Anxiety symptoms were measured using a standardized
questionnaire. Additionally, multiple environmental exposures, such as
air pollution, noise, and green space availability were assessed.

The findings of the study indicate that certain space-time activities
and environmental exposures are associated with anxiety symptoms.
Participants who spent more time in areas with higher levels of air
pollution and noise reported higher anxiety levels. Conversely, spending
time in green spaces was associated with lower anxiety symptoms. The
study also found that physical activity and social interaction in
various environments were linked to decreased anxiety.

Overall, the study provides insights into the complex relationship
between daily activities, environmental exposures, and anxiety symptoms.
The findings highlight the importance of considering the spatial context
and environmental factors when studying mental health outcomes. The
results suggest that promoting access to green spaces, reducing exposure
to air pollution and noise, and encouraging physical activity and social
interaction in supportive environments could have positive impacts on
anxiety levels.

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\hypertarget{methodology}{%
\section{Methodology}\label{methodology}}

\bookmarksetup{startatroot}

\hypertarget{applications}{%
\section{Applications}\label{applications}}

\bookmarksetup{startatroot}

\hypertarget{conclusions}{%
\section{Conclusions}\label{conclusions}}

This section need not be overly long. You should address any limitations
of your results, such as dependence on underlying assumptions or
geographic scope. You should also provide a map for future research.

Finally, you should underline the contributions of this work and any
practical relevance.

\bookmarksetup{startatroot}

\hypertarget{references}{%
\section*{References}\label{references}}
\addcontentsline{toc}{section}{References}

\markboth{References}{References}

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\bibliography{groupreferences.bib}




\end{document}