- 1 States of matter
- 2 Atoms, elemenenter code herets and compounds
- 3 Stoichiometry
- 4 Electrochemistry
- 5 Chemical energetics
- 6 Chemical reactions
- 7 Acids, bases and salts
- 8 The Periodic Table
- 9 Metals
- 10 Chemistry of the environment
- 11 Organic chemistry
- 12 Experimental techniques and chemical analysis
graph LR
Solid--->|melting|Liquid---->|boiling/evaporation|Gas
Gas-->|condensing|Liquid-->|freezing|Solid
| Boiling | evaporation | |
|---|---|---|
| Happens | at specific temp. | over a range of temperatures |
| Process | throughout the liquid | surface process |
| Rate | faster | slower |
| Solid | Liquid | Gas | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Separation | Touching | |||
| Arrangement | Regular | |||
| Motion | Vibrate |
- Electronic Configuration
- Outermost shell e
- Number of e shell
| Bond | Structure | Bond Definition ( a strong electrostatic attraction between...) |
|---|---|---|
| Metallic | Giant metallic | Positive metal ions + "sea" of delocalized electrons |
| Ionic | Giant ionic | Positive ions + Negative ions |
| Covalent | Giant covalent | Positive nuclei + Negative shared electrons |
| Intermolecular force | Simple molecular |
- Melting point
- (Simple / Giant) Structure?
- It has (Weak / Strong) ______ Bond between (molecules / + -)
- (Less / A lot of energy) is needed to overcome the (Weak / Strong) ______ bond.
畫龜背 --> Empirical formula X --> Molecular Formula Y (
-
Word Eqn (chemical name)
-
Symbol Eqn (chemical formula)
- State symbol: s l g aq
- Ionic Eqn + State
-
Balance Eqn
- 計數法
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Electrolysis | Breakdown of an ionic compound in molten or aqueous state by electricity |
Q: Why use graphite as electrode
A: Graphite is insert Graphite conduct electricity
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Activation Energy | the minimum energy required that colliding particles to react |
Q: State how the shape of the graph shows that the rate of reaction decreases as the reaction progresses. A: gradient/slope decreases
Definition: Catalyst : increases the rate of a reaction & unchanged at the end of a reaction
| Effect | null | null | null |
|---|---|---|---|
| ↑ Concentration [] | ↑ more #particles per unit volume | ↑ more frequent collision rate | |
| ↑ Temperature | ↑ avg KE of particles | ↑ more #particles >= Ea | ↑ more frequent collision rate |
| ↑ Pressure | ↑ more #particles per unit volume | ↑ more frequent collision rate | |
| ↑ Surface area | ↑ more reactant expose to collide | ||
| ↑ Catalyst | It provide another pathway with lower Ea | ↑ more #particles >= Ea |
- ↑ increase successful collisions (per unit time)/(rate)
- ↑ increase reaction rate
Haber Process: N2 : Air Hydrogen: Methane with Steam 合成氣工藝
Contact Process: O2: Air SO2: Burning sulfur or roasting sulfide ores
| Haber Process | Contact Process | |
|---|---|---|
| Symbol Eqn | N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g) | 2SO2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2SO3(g) |
| Temp | 450°C | 450°C |
| Pressure | 200atm | 2atm |
| Catalyst | Fe, iron | VO5, vanadium(V) oxide |
| Detla H | Exothermic | Exothermic |
safety considerations and economics
| Oxidation | Reduction |
|---|---|
| + O | - O |
| + O.N. | - O.N. |
| - e | + e |
| - H | + H |
| Term | Definition | null |
|---|---|---|
| Acid | Proton donors | |
| Base | Proton acceptors | |
| Strong Acid | An acid that is completely dissociated in aqueous solution | HCl(aq) → H+(aq) + Cl–(aq) |
| Weak Acid | An acid that is partially dissociated in aqueous solution | CH3COOH(aq) ⇌ H+(aq) + CH3COO–(aq) |
| Indicator | Acid | Neutral | Alkali |
|---|---|---|---|
| Litmus 石蕊 | Red | Blue | |
| thymolphthalein | Colourless | Blue | |
| methyl orange | Red | Yellow | |
| Universal Indicator | Red | Green | Blue (Purple) |
| null | |||
| phenolphthalein | Colourless | Very pale pink | Pink |
- Litmus is not suitable for titrations
as the colour change is not sharp ==> Difficult to determine an endpoint
| Soluble | Insoluble |
|---|---|
| Gp 1, NH4+ | CO32- |
| NO3- | OH- (Ca(OH)2 partial) |
| Cl- (Ag, Pb) | |
| SO42- (Ba, Ca, Pb) |
- Why it is important to add excess XXX?
To use up all acid / To ensure complete reaction that used up all "reactant B"
- fizzing
- stops dissolving/ Solid remains
- form coloured compounds / ions
- act as catalysts
1 Compare the general physical properties of metals and non-metals, including: (a) thermal conductivity (b) electrical conductivity (c) malleability and ductility (d) melting points and boiling points 2 Describe the general chemical properties of metals, limited to their reactions with: (a) dilute acids (b) cold water and steam what makes alkaline hydroxide OR OH–
(c) oxygen
- carbon dioxide + water → glucose + oxygen
- 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2
| Term | Description |
|---|---|
| Functional Group | an atom or group of atoms that determine the chemical properties of a homologous series |
| Structural Isomers | compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural formula |
| Saturated Compounds | molecules in which all carbon-carbon bonds are single bonds |
| Unsaturated Compounds | molecules in which one or more carbon-carbon bonds are not single |
(a) alkanes, CnH2n+2 (b) alkenes, CnH2n (c) alcohols, CnH2n+1OH (d) carboxylic acids, CnH2n+1COOH
- having the same functional group
- having the same general formula
- differing from one member to the next by a –CH2– unit
- displaying a trend in physical properties
- sharing similar chemical properties
| # of C | Stem | Alkane (-ane) | Alkene (-ene) | Alcohol (-ol) | Carboxylic acids (-noic acid) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | meth | methane | methene | methanol | methanoic acid |
| 2 | eth | ethane | ethene | ethanol | ethanoic acid |
| 3 | prop | propane | propene | propanol | propanoic acid |
| 4 | but | ||||
| 5 | pent | ||||
| 6 | hex | ||||
| 7 | hept | ||||
| 8 | oct | ||||
| 9 | non | ||||
| 10 | dec |
- unsaturated hydrocarbons
| Alkene to ... | Add what | Remarks | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Bromine | 1,2-dibromoethane | -Br -Br | Test for saturation |
| Steam (hydration) | ethanol | -H -OH | 300°C, 60atm, acid catalyst |
| hydrogen (hydrogenation) | ethane | -H -H | 200°C, nickel catalyst |
Q: How to distinguish between saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons?
A: Using Bromine water (orange-brown):
- Saturated: remains orange (unreactive)
- Unsaturated: turns from orange to colourless / decolourises
Q: Why stage one is called an addition reaction.
A: Only form one product
| Fermentation of Aqueous Glucose (for Ethanol) | Catalytic Addition of Steam to Ethene | |
| Describe | Yeast is added to dissolved glucose. | The ethene reacts with steam (reversibly) to form ethanol |
| Reaction | C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 | ethene (g) + steam (g) ⇌ ethanol (l) |
| Condition | 25-35 °C for optimal enzyme activity | 300°C, 60 atm, acid Catalyst - phosphoric acid |
|
Low temp: Gives better yield
High temp: Faster rate |
||
| Rate | The slow reaction produces a dilute solution that requires processing. Can only be produced in batches | The fast reaction produces pure ethanol. Continuous production (no batches) |
| Green 1 | Produces greenhouse gas (CO2) | No greenhouse pollutants |
| Green 2 | Uses renewable resources | Uses non-renewable resources (crude oil) |
| Term | Description | null |
|---|---|---|
| Solvent | A substance that dissolves a solute | 糖 鹽 粉 |
| Solute | A substance that is dissolved in a solvent | 水 牛奶 |
| Solution | A mixture of one or more solutes dissolved in a solvent | 糖鹽水 |
| Saturated solution | A solution that can hold no more solute at the specified temperature | |
| Residue | A substance that remains after evaporation, distillation, filtration or any similar process | |
| Filtrate | A liquid or solution that has passed through a filter |