bibliography.bib

@misc{jones_material_2024,
  title = {Material for Preparation of "{{A Lagrangian Perspective}} on the {{Lifecycle}} and {{Cloud Radiative Effect}} of {{Deep Convective Clouds Over Africa}}"},
  author = {Jones, William K},
  year = {2024},
  month = feb,
  publisher = {{Zenodo}},
  howpublished = {Zenodo},
  doi = {10.5281/zenodo.10696900},
  urldate = {2024-03-18},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/P34VIHTV/10696901.html}
}


@article{emde_libradtran_2016,
  title = {The {{libRadtran}} Software Package for Radiative Transfer Calculations (Version 2.0.1)},
  author = {Emde, Claudia and {Buras-Schnell}, Robert and Kylling, Arve and Mayer, Bernhard and Gasteiger, Josef and Hamann, Ulrich and Kylling, Jonas and Richter, Bettina and Pause, Christian and Dowling, Timothy and Bugliaro, Luca},
  year = {2016},
  month = may,
  journal = {Geoscientific Model Development},
  volume = {9},
  number = {5},
  pages = {1647--1672},
  publisher = {{Copernicus GmbH}},
  issn = {1991-959X},
  doi = {10.5194/gmd-9-1647-2016},
  urldate = {2023-06-07},
  abstract = {libRadtran is a widely used software package for radiative transfer calculations. It allows one to compute (polarized) radiances, irradiance, and actinic fluxes in the solar and thermal spectral regions. libRadtran has been used for various applications, including remote sensing of clouds, aerosols and trace gases in the Earth's atmosphere, climate studies, e.g., for the calculation of radiative forcing due to different atmospheric components, for UV forecasting, the calculation of photolysis frequencies, and for remote sensing of other planets in our solar system. The package has been described in Mayer and Kylling (2005). Since then several new features have been included, for example polarization, Raman scattering, a new molecular gas absorption parameterization, and several new parameterizations of cloud and aerosol optical properties. Furthermore, a graphical user interface is now available, which greatly simplifies the usage of the model, especially for new users. This paper gives an overview of libRadtran version 2.0.1 with a focus on new features. Applications including these new features are provided as examples of use. A complete description of libRadtran and all its input options is given in the user manual included in the libRadtran software package, which is freely available at http://www.libradtran.org.},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {notion},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/KUTCNF8C/Emde et al. - 2016 - The libRadtran software package for radiative tran.pdf}
}

@article{gasparini_diurnal_2022,
  title = {Diurnal {{Differences}} in {{Tropical Maritime Anvil Cloud Evolution}}},
  author = {Gasparini, Bla{\v z} and Sokol, Adam B. and Wall, Casey J. and Hartmann, Dennis L. and Blossey, Peter N.},
  year = {2022},
  month = mar,
  journal = {Journal of Climate},
  volume = {35},
  number = {5},
  pages = {1655--1677},
  publisher = {{American Meteorological Society}},
  issn = {0894-8755, 1520-0442},
  doi = {10.1175/JCLI-D-21-0211.1},
  urldate = {2023-09-15},
  abstract = {Abstract Satellite observations of tropical maritime convection indicate an afternoon maximum in anvil cloud fraction that cannot be explained by the diurnal cycle of deep convection peaking at night. We use idealized cloud-resolving model simulations of single anvil cloud evolution pathways, initialized at different times of the day, to show that tropical anvil clouds formed during the day are more widespread and longer lasting than those formed at night. This diurnal difference is caused by shortwave radiative heating, which lofts and spreads anvil clouds via a mesoscale circulation that is largely absent at night, when a different, longwave-driven circulation dominates. The nighttime circulation entrains dry environmental air that erodes cloud top and shortens anvil lifetime. Increased ice nucleation in more turbulent nighttime conditions supported by the longwave cloud-top cooling and cloud-base heating dipole cannot compensate for the effect of diurnal shortwave radiative heating. Radiative{\textendash}convective equilibrium simulations with a realistic diurnal cycle of insolation confirm the crucial role of shortwave heating in lofting and sustaining anvil clouds. The shortwave-driven mesoscale ascent leads to daytime anvils with larger ice crystal size, number concentration, and water content at cloud top than their nighttime counterparts. Significance Statement Deep convective activity and rainfall peak at night over the tropical oceans. However, anvil clouds that originate from the tops of deep convective clouds reach their largest extent in the afternoon hours. We study the underlying physical mechanisms that lead to this discrepancy by simulating the evolution of anvil clouds with a high-resolution model. We find that the absorption of sunlight by ice crystals lofts and spreads the daytime anvil clouds over a larger area, increasing their lifetime, changing their properties, and thus influencing their impact on climate. Our findings show that it is important not only to simulate the correct onset of deep convection but also to correctly represent anvil cloud evolution for skillful simulations of the tropical energy balance.},
  chapter = {Journal of Climate},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {notion},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/LCG69GTY/Gasparini et al. - 2022 - Diurnal Differences in Tropical Maritime Anvil Clo.pdf}
}

@article{feng_mesoscale_2023,
  title = {Mesoscale {{Convective Systems}} in {{DYAMOND Global Convection-Permitting Simulations}}},
  author = {Feng, Zhe and Leung, L. Ruby and Hardin, Joseph and Terai, Christopher R. and Song, Fengfei and Caldwell, Peter},
  year = {2023},
  journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},
  volume = {50},
  number = {4},
  pages = {e2022GL102603},
  issn = {1944-8007},
  doi = {10.1029/2022GL102603},
  urldate = {2023-08-19},
  abstract = {This study examines the deep convection populations and mesoscale convective systems (MCSs) simulated in the DYAMOND (DYnamics of the atmospheric general circulation modeled on non-hydrostatic domains) winter project. A storm tracking algorithm is applied to six DYAMOND simulations and a global high-resolution satellite cloud and precipitation data set for comparison. The simulated frequencies of tropical deep convection and organized convective systems vary widely among models and regions, although robust MCSs are generally underestimated. The diurnal cycles of MCS initiation and mature stages are well simulated, but the amplitudes are exaggerated over land. Most models capture the observed MCS lifetime, cloud shield area, rainfall volume and movement speed. However, cloud-top height and convective rainfall intensity are consistently overestimated, and stratiform rainfall area and amount are consistently underestimated. Possible causes for the model differences compared to observations and implications for future model developments are discussed.},
  copyright = {{\copyright} 2023 Battelle Memorial Institute and The Authors.},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {convection-permitting modeling,deep convection,mesoscale convective systems,model evaluation,notion,precipitation,storm tracking},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/SI5N6VUV/Feng et al. - 2023 - Mesoscale Convective Systems in DYAMOND Global Con.pdf;/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/9A5NDP8L/2022GL102603.html}
}

@article{prein_review_2015,
  title = {A Review on Regional Convection-Permitting Climate Modeling: {{Demonstrations}}, Prospects, and Challenges},
  shorttitle = {A Review on Regional Convection-Permitting Climate Modeling},
  author = {Prein, Andreas F. and Langhans, Wolfgang and Fosser, Giorgia and Ferrone, Andrew and Ban, Nikolina and Goergen, Klaus and Keller, Michael and T{\"o}lle, Merja and Gutjahr, Oliver and Feser, Frauke and Brisson, Erwan and Kollet, Stefan and Schmidli, Juerg and {van Lipzig}, Nicole P. M. and Leung, Ruby},
  year = {2015},
  journal = {Reviews of Geophysics},
  volume = {53},
  number = {2},
  pages = {323--361},
  issn = {1944-9208},
  doi = {10.1002/2014RG000475},
  urldate = {2024-02-15},
  abstract = {Regional climate modeling using convection-permitting models (CPMs; horizontal grid spacing {$<$}4 km) emerges as a promising framework to provide more reliable climate information on regional to local scales compared to traditionally used large-scale models (LSMs; horizontal grid spacing {$>$}10 km). CPMs no longer rely on convection parameterization schemes, which had been identified as a major source of errors and uncertainties in LSMs. Moreover, CPMs allow for a more accurate representation of surface and orography fields. The drawback of CPMs is the high demand on computational resources. For this reason, first CPM climate simulations only appeared a decade ago. In this study, we aim to provide a common basis for CPM climate simulations by giving a holistic review of the topic. The most important components in CPMs such as physical parameterizations and dynamical formulations are discussed critically. An overview of weaknesses and an outlook on required future developments is provided. Most importantly, this review presents the consolidated outcome of studies that addressed the added value of CPM climate simulations compared to LSMs. Improvements are evident mostly for climate statistics related to deep convection, mountainous regions, or extreme events. The climate change signals of CPM simulations suggest an increase in flash floods, changes in hail storm characteristics, and reductions in the snowpack over mountains. In conclusion, CPMs are a very promising tool for future climate research. However, coordinated modeling programs are crucially needed to advance parameterizations of unresolved physics and to assess the full potential of CPMs.},
  copyright = {{\copyright}2015. The Authors.},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {added value,climate,cloud resolving,convection-permitting modeling,high resolution,nonhydrostatic modeling},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/7WEE6XGX/Prein et al. - 2015 - A review on regional convection-permitting climate.pdf;/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/57YR7ACL/2014RG000475.html}
}


@article{beydoun_dissecting_2021,
  title = {Dissecting {{Anvil Cloud Response}} to {{Sea Surface Warming}}},
  author = {Beydoun, Hassan and Caldwell, Peter M. and Hannah, Walter M. and Donahue, Aaron S.},
  year = {2021},
  journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},
  volume = {48},
  number = {15},
  pages = {e2021GL094049},
  issn = {1944-8007},
  doi = {10.1029/2021GL094049},
  urldate = {2023-11-27},
  abstract = {We derive an anvil cloud diagnostic from the continuity equation of cloud ice and apply it to the output of convection-permitting Energy Exascale Earth System Model (E3SM) simulations run in radiative-convective equilibrium mode. This diagnostic shows that anvil cloud fraction can be reliably diagnosed as a product of cloud detrainment and lifetime. Detrainment is found to be approximated well by a product of clear sky convergence and cloud ice mixing ratio, while cloud lifetime is dominated by sedimentation. Taken together, this diagnostic expresses anvil cloud fraction as a function of five physically measurable quantities. Of these, clear-sky convergence changes drive the anvil cloud reduction with warming while an increase in cloud ice mixing ratio buffers the decrease. Accordingly, this study provides a theoretical foundation upon which the Stability-Iris hypothesis can be tested.},
  copyright = {{\copyright} 2021. The Authors.},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {notion},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/DT2ATDEM/Beydoun et al. - 2021 - Dissecting Anvil Cloud Response to Sea Surface War.pdf;/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/7ZCSZGZ6/2021GL094049.html}
}


@article{berry_cloud_2014,
  title = {Cloud Properties and Radiative Effects of the {{Asian}} Summer Monsoon Derived from {{A-Train}} Data},
  author = {Berry, Elizabeth and Mace, Gerald G.},
  year = {2014},
  journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres},
  volume = {119},
  number = {15},
  pages = {9492--9508},
  issn = {2169-8996},
  doi = {10.1002/2014JD021458},
  urldate = {2024-02-15},
  abstract = {Using A-Train satellite data, we investigate the distribution of clouds and their microphysical and radiative properties in Southeast Asia during the summer monsoon. We find an approximate balance in the top of the atmosphere (TOA) cloud radiative effect, which is largely due to commonly occurring cirrus layers that warm the atmosphere, and less frequent deep layers, which produce a strong cooling at the surface. The distribution of ice water path (IWP) in these layers, obtained from the 2C-ICE CloudSat data product, is highly skewed with a mean value of 440 g m-2 and a median of 24 g m-2. We evaluate the fraction of the total IWP observed by CloudSat and CALIPSO individually and find that both instruments are necessary for describing the overall IWP statistics and particularly the values that are most important to cirrus radiative impact. In examining how cloud radiative effects at the TOA vary as a function of IWP, we find that cirrus with IWP less than 200 g m-2 produce a net warming in the study region. Weighting the distribution of radiative effect by the frequency of occurrence of IWP values, we determine that cirrus with IWP around 20 g m-2 contribute most to heating at the TOA. We conclude that the mean IWP is a poor diagnostic of radiative impact. We suggest that climate model intercomparisons with data should focus on the median IWP because that statistic is more descriptive of the cirrus that contribute most to the radiative impacts of tropical ice clouds.},
  copyright = {{\copyright}2014. American Geophysical Union. All Rights Reserved.},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {A-Train,clouds,ice water path,radiative forcing},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/67MRRUZA/Berry and Mace - 2014 - Cloud properties and radiative effects of the Asia.pdf;/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/D6NQV5HM/2014JD021458.html}
}

@article{horner_evolution_2023,
  title = {The Evolution of Deep Convective Systems and Their Associated Cirrus Outflows},
  author = {Horner, George and Gryspeerdt, Edward},
  year = {2023},
  month = nov,
  journal = {Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics},
  volume = {23},
  number = {22},
  pages = {14239--14253},
  publisher = {{Copernicus GmbH}},
  issn = {1680-7316},
  doi = {10.5194/acp-23-14239-2023},
  urldate = {2023-12-14},
  abstract = {Tropical deep convective clouds, particularly their large cirrus outflows, play an important role in modulating the energy balance of the Earth's atmosphere. Whilst the cores of these deep convective clouds have a significant short-wave (SW) cooling effect, they dissipate quickly. Conversely, the thin cirrus that flow from these cores can persist for days after the core has dissipated, reaching hundreds of kilometres in extent. These thin cirrus have a potential for large warming in the tropics. Understanding the evolution of air parcels from deep convection, clouds along these trajectories, and how they change in response to anthropogenic emissions is therefore important to understand past and future climate change.  This work uses a novel approach to investigate the evolution of tropical convective clouds by introducing the concept of ``time since convection'' (TSC). This is used to build a composite picture of the lifecycle of air parcels from deep convection. Cloud properties are a strong function of TSC, showing decreases in the optical thickness, cloud-top height, and cloud fraction over time, thereby driving the latitudinal structure of cloudiness. After an initial dissipation of the convective core, changes in thin cirrus cloud amount were seen beyond 200 h from convection. Changes in cloud are shown to be a strong function of TSC and not simply reflective of latitudinal changes as air moves from the tropics to the extratropics.  Finally, in the initial stages of convection there was a large net negative cloud radiative effect (CRE). However, once the convective core had dissipated, the sign of the CRE flipped and there was a sustained net warming CRE beyond 120 h from the convective event. Changes are present in the cloud properties long after the main convective activities have dissipated, signalling the need to continue further analysis at longer timescales than previously studied.},
  langid = {english},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/TVBHHJQ9/Horner and Gryspeerdt - 2023 - The evolution of deep convective systems and their.pdf}
}


@article{liu_observed_2023,
  title = {Observed Decreasing Trend in the Upper-Tropospheric Cloud Top Temperature},
  author = {Liu, Huan and Koren, Ilan and Altaratz, Orit},
  year = {2023},
  month = sep,
  journal = {npj Climate and Atmospheric Science},
  volume = {6},
  number = {1},
  pages = {1--8},
  publisher = {{Nature Publishing Group}},
  issn = {2397-3722},
  doi = {10.1038/s41612-023-00465-5},
  urldate = {2024-02-01},
  abstract = {Obtaining the response of cloud top temperature (CTT) to global warming correctly is crucial for understanding the current and future energy budget of the climate system. For a given cloud fraction, colder CTT implies more longwave radiation being capped within the Earth-atmosphere system, consequently heating it. Current climate models predict an almost fixed CTT for upper-tropospheric clouds as the climate is expected to warm up during the 21st century, as explained by the fixed anvil temperature hypothesis. However, our analysis, based on the last 19 years of satellite observations (12.2002{\textendash}11.2021), reveals a significant decreasing trend in upper-tropospheric CTT with almost no change in the corresponding cloud fraction. This cooling rate is several times larger than the observed surface warming rate. This finding suggests a missing heating component by upper-tropospheric clouds in current climate predictions.},
  copyright = {2023 The Author(s)},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {Climate change,Environmental sciences},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/INS3FKGK/Liu et al. - 2023 - Observed decreasing trend in the upper-tropospheri.pdf}
}


@article{agard_clausius_2017,
  title = {Clausius{\textendash}{{Clapeyron Scaling}} of {{Peak CAPE}} in {{Continental Convective Storm Environments}}},
  author = {Agard, Vince and Emanuel, Kerry},
  year = {2017},
  month = sep,
  journal = {Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences},
  volume = {74},
  number = {9},
  pages = {3043--3054},
  publisher = {{American Meteorological Society}},
  issn = {0022-4928, 1520-0469},
  doi = {10.1175/JAS-D-16-0352.1},
  urldate = {2023-09-06},
  abstract = {Abstract A thermodynamic constraint on convective available potential energy (CAPE) in continental environments is established using an idealized one-dimensional model. This theoretical model simplifies the synoptic-scale preconditioning framework for continental severe convection by considering a dry adiabatic column that comes into contact with a moist land surface. A system of equations is derived to describe the evolution of the ensuing surface boundary layer. From these, the maximum value of transient CAPE in the column can be found for any particular combination of surface temperature and moisture. It is demonstrated that, for a given range of surface temperatures, the value of peak CAPE scales with the Clausius{\textendash}Clapeyron relation.},
  chapter = {Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {notion},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/W6A2WEZF/Agard and Emanuel - 2017 - Clausius–Clapeyron Scaling of Peak CAPE in Contine.pdf}
}

@article{aminou_msg_2002,
  title = {{{MSG}}'s {{SEVIRI Instrument}}},
  author = {Aminou, D. M. A.},
  year = {2002},
  month = aug,
  journal = {ESA bulletin},
  volume = {111},
  abstract = {The MSG satellite's main payload is the optical imaging radiometer, the so-called Spinning Enhanced Visible and Infrared Imager (SEVIRI). With its 12 spectral channels, SEVIRI will provide 20 times more information than the current Meteosat satellites, offering new and, in some cases, unique capabilities for cloud imaging and tracking, fog detection, measurement of the Earth-surface and cloud-top temperatures, tracking of ozone patterns, as well as many other improved measurements. The SEVIRI instrument has been manufactured by European industry under the leadership of Astrium SAS in Toulouse, France.},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {notion},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/D9TMEQNB/Aminou - MSG Project, ESA Directorate of Earth Observation,.pdf}
}

@article{augustine_mesoscale_1988,
  title = {Mesoscale {{Convective Complexes}} over the {{United States}} during 1985},
  author = {Augustine, John A. and Howard, Kenneth W.},
  year = {1988},
  month = mar,
  journal = {Monthly Weather Review},
  volume = {116},
  number = {3},
  pages = {685--701},
  publisher = {{American Meteorological Society}},
  issn = {1520-0493, 0027-0644},
  doi = {10.1175/1520-0493(1988)116<0685:MCCOTU>2.0.CO;2},
  urldate = {2023-08-16},
  abstract = {Abstract Digital GOES infrared imagery is used to document mesoscale convective complexes (MCCs) over the United States during 1985. The introduction of digital imagery to this process, which has been carried out since 1978, has made possible a partial automation of the MCC documentation procedure and subsequently expanded opportunities for research. In conjunction with these improvements, the definition of an MCC has been slightly modified from that proposed by Maddox in 1980. The warmer threshold area measurement ({$\leqslant-$}32{\textdegree}C) of Maddox's original criteria has been dropped from consideration because its measurement was too subjective, and also was determined to be unnecessary. In 1985, 59 MCCs were identified; this total is approximately 20 to 40 more than in any year since 1978, when these annual summaries began. The monthly distribution and seasonal progression of MCCs in 1985 are similar to those of prior years. The enhanced MCC activity in June 1985 is associated with a persistent favorable quasi-geostrophic forcing during that period. Significant MCC research conducted in 1985 included a prototype large-scale field program (0.-K. PRE-STORM) in May and June dedicated solely to the investigation of middle-latitude mesoscale convective systems.},
  chapter = {Monthly Weather Review},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {notion},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/JTNVFXZS/Augustine and Howard - 1988 - Mesoscale Convective Complexes over the United Sta.pdf;/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/VEP3DMZR/Augustine and Howard - 1988 - Mesoscale Convective Complexes over the United Sta.pdf}
}

@article{birner_relative_2017,
  title = {On the Relative Importance of Radiative and Dynamical Heating for Tropical Tropopause Temperatures},
  author = {Birner, Thomas and Charlesworth, Edward J.},
  year = {2017},
  journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres},
  volume = {122},
  number = {13},
  pages = {6782--6797},
  issn = {2169-8996},
  doi = {10.1002/2016JD026445},
  urldate = {2024-02-01},
  abstract = {The tropical tropopause layer (TTL) shows a curious stratification structure: temperature continues to decrease beyond the level of main convective outflow ({$\sim$}200 hPa) up to the cold point tropopause ({$\sim$}100 hPa), but the TTL is more stably stratified than the upper troposphere. A cold point tropopause well separated from the level of main convective outflow has previously been shown to be consistent with the detailed radiative balance in the TTL even without dynamical effects. However, the TTL is also controlled by adiabatic cooling due to large-scale upwelling within the Brewer-Dobson circulation, which creates the extremely low stratospheric water vapor content via freeze drying. Here we study the role of water vapor and ozone radiative heating on the detailed temperature structure of the TTL based on idealized single-column radiative-convective equilibrium simulations. An atmosphere without adiabatic cooling due to upwelling results in much higher stratospheric water vapor content; the resulting altered radiative heating structure is shown to push the TTL in a regime of radiative control by water vapor. The TTL structure is furthermore shown to be strongly sensitive to the altitude where ozone sharply transitions from tropospheric to stratospheric values. Adiabatic cooling due to upwelling is found to reduce the radiative control by water vapor, resulting primarily in a negative transport-radiation feedback. Conversely, the radiative control by ozone is enhanced due to upwelling{\textemdash}a positive transport-radiation feedback. The particularly strong ozone radiative effect may explain about half of the reported spread in cold point temperatures ({$\sim$}10 K) in current climate models.},
  copyright = {{\textcopyright}2017. American Geophysical Union. All Rights Reserved.},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {layer,tropical,tropopause},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/VNTVCW9X/Birner and Charlesworth - 2017 - On the relative importance of radiative and dynami.pdf;/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/4JU7ISA6/2016JD026445.html}
}

@article{bony_thermodynamic_2016,
  title = {Thermodynamic Control of Anvil Cloud Amount},
  author = {Bony, Sandrine and Stevens, Bjorn and Coppin, David and Becker, Tobias and Reed, Kevin A. and Voigt, Aiko and Medeiros, Brian},
  year = {2016},
  month = aug,
  journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences},
  volume = {113},
  number = {32},
  pages = {8927--8932},
  publisher = {{Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences}},
  doi = {10.1073/pnas.1601472113},
  urldate = {2023-09-01},
  abstract = {General circulation models show that as the surface temperature increases, the convective anvil clouds shrink. By analyzing radiative{\textendash}convective equilibrium simulations, we show that this behavior is rooted in basic energetic and thermodynamic properties of the atmosphere: As the climate warms, the clouds rise and remain at nearly the same temperature, but find themselves in a more stable atmosphere; this enhanced stability reduces the convective outflow in the upper troposphere and decreases the anvil cloud fraction. By warming the troposphere and increasing the upper-tropospheric stability, the clustering of deep convection also reduces the convective outflow and the anvil cloud fraction. When clouds are radiatively active, this robust coupling between temperature, high clouds, and circulation exerts a positive feedback on convective aggregation and favors the maintenance of strongly aggregated atmospheric states at high temperatures. This stability iris mechanism likely contributes to the narrowing of rainy areas as the climate warms. Whether or not it influences climate sensitivity requires further investigation.},
  keywords = {anvil cloud,climate sensitivity,cloud feedback,convective aggregation,large-scale circulation,notion},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/55CUPUFS/Bony et al. - 2016 - Thermodynamic control of anvil cloud amount.pdf;/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/IHK3JGBQ/8927.html}
}

@article{bouniol_life_2021,
  title = {Life {{Cycle}}{\textendash}{{Resolved Observation}} of {{Radiative Properties}} of {{Mesoscale Convective Systems}}},
  author = {Bouniol, Dominique and Roca, R{\'e}my and Fiolleau, Thomas and Raberanto, Patrick},
  year = {2021},
  month = aug,
  journal = {Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology},
  volume = {60},
  number = {8},
  pages = {1091--1104},
  publisher = {{American Meteorological Society}},
  issn = {1558-8424, 1558-8432},
  doi = {10.1175/JAMC-D-20-0244.1},
  urldate = {2023-08-25},
  abstract = {Abstract The evolution of radiative properties [outgoing longwave radiation (OLR) and albedo at the top of the atmosphere] over a mesoscale convective system (MCS) life cycle is assessed using five years of Scanner for Radiation Budget (ScaRaB) radiometer on board the Megha-Tropiques satellite merged with geostationary infrared images. The MCS life cycle is documented using a tracking algorithm. A composite approach is then implemented to document the evolution of radiative properties at each life stage at the scale of the tropical belt, in continental and oceanic regions and in specific regions. Independently of the considered region, the composites share similarities with a unique maximum in albedo and a unique minimum in OLR, values of which differ depending on the environment as well as the amplitude of both parameters over the life cycle. The unique precessing orbit of the Megha-Tropiques satellite allows a consideration of the albedo as a function of the local time of observation showing that the magnitude of the albedo signal is mainly controlled by the solar zenithal angle. Sensitivity tests make possible the quantification of the impact of an error in radiative properties showing that even small errors lead to substantial increment on the instantaneous cloud radiative effect. All together, these elements point toward the subtle balance between life cycle, cloud radiative properties, and phasing within the diurnal cycle to build the atmospheric radiative budget in oceanic or continental regions.},
  chapter = {Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {notion},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/9CEY6J4F/Bouniol et al. - 2021 - Life Cycle–Resolved Observation of Radiative Prope.pdf}
}

@article{bouniol_macrophysical_2016,
  title = {Macrophysical, {{Microphysical}}, and {{Radiative Properties}} of {{Tropical Mesoscale Convective Systems}} over {{Their Life Cycle}}},
  author = {Bouniol, Dominique and Roca, R{\'e}my and Fiolleau, Thomas and Poan, D. Emmanuel},
  year = {2016},
  month = may,
  journal = {Journal of Climate},
  volume = {29},
  number = {9},
  pages = {3353--3371},
  publisher = {{American Meteorological Society}},
  issn = {0894-8755, 1520-0442},
  doi = {10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0551.1},
  urldate = {2023-08-25},
  abstract = {Abstract Mesoscale convective systems (MCSs) are important drivers of the atmospheric large-scale circulation through their associated diabatic heating profile. Taking advantage of recent tracking techniques, this study investigates the evolution of macrophysical, microphysical, and radiative properties over the MCS life cycle by merging geostationary and polar-orbiting satellite data. These observations are performed in three major convective areas: continental West Africa, the adjacent Atlantic Ocean, and the open Indian Ocean. MCS properties are also investigated according to internal subregions (convective, stratiform, and nonprecipitating anvil). Continental MCSs show a specific life cycle, with more intense convection at the beginning. Larger and denser hydrometeors are thus found at higher altitudes, as well as up to the cirriform subregion. Oceanic MCSs have more constant reflectivity values, suggesting a less intense convective updraft, but more persistent intensity. A layer of small crystals is found in all subregions, but with a depth that varies according to the MCS subregion and life cycle. Radiative properties are also examined. It appears that the evolution of large and dense hydrometeors tends to control the evolution of the cloud albedo and the outgoing longwave radiation. The impact of dense hydrometeors, detrained from the convective towers, is also seen in the radiative heating profiles, in particular in the shortwave domain. A dipole of cooling near the cloud top and heating near the cloud base is found in the longwave; this cooling intensifies near the end of the life cycle.},
  chapter = {Journal of Climate},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {notion},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/KJIT7QZC/Bouniol et al. - 2016 - Macrophysical, Microphysical, and Radiative Proper.pdf}
}

@article{chen_diurnal_1997,
  title = {Diurnal Variation and Life-Cycle of Deep Convective Systems over the Tropical Pacific Warm Pool},
  author = {Chen, Shuyi S. and Houze Jr, Robert A.},
  year = {1997},
  journal = {Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society},
  volume = {123},
  number = {538},
  pages = {357--388},
  issn = {1477-870X},
  doi = {10.1002/qj.49712353806},
  urldate = {2023-06-09},
  abstract = {Satellite infrared data and in situ surface measurements from the Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere Coupled Ocean-Atmosphere Response Experiment (TOGA CORE) are used to examine the diurnal variations of deep convection in two distinct large-scale flow regimes over the western Pacific warm pool. Large-scale atmospheric dynamic and radiative processes strongly affect the life-cycle of deep convective systems in the tropics. the observed diurnal variation of tropical cloud systems suggests that diurnal heating of the tropical atmosphere and ocean surfaces provides favoured conditions in the afternoon for the formation of cloud systems and, as the cloud systems grow and decay with time, the diurnal cycle of cloudiness reflects the life-cycle (initiation, growth, and dissipation) of cloud systems. During the convectively suppressed phases of the intra-seasonal oscillation (ISO), the cloud systems are spatially small and their lifetimes are generally short ({$<$} 3 h). They form, reach maximum size, and die preferentially in the afternoon, at the time of day when the ocean surface and overlying atmospheric surface layer are warmest from solar heating. During the convectively active phases of the ISO, the cold cloud coverage is dominated by spatially large, long-lived cloud systems. They tend to form in the afternoon (1400-1900 lst) and reach a maximum areal extent of very cold cloud tops ({$<$} 208 K) before dawn (0000-0600 lst). As part of their life-cycle, the subsequent decay of these large systems extends into the next day; the satellite-observed maximum cloud coverage is dominated by successively warmer cloud tops, from 208-235 K in the early afternoon ({$\sim$} 1400 lst) to 235-260 K in the early evening ({$\sim$} 1800 lst). Meanwhile the frequency of small cloud systems exhibits two peaks-one in the afternoon and the other in the predawn hours. the latter is evidently triggered by outflows from the large convective systems. The life-cycle of the large, long-lasting convective systems introduces horizontal variability into the pattern of observed cold cloud tops during the active phases of the ISO. Because the life-cycle of large convective systems can take up to a day, they leave the boundary layer filled with air of lower moist-static energy and a cloud canopy that partially shades the ocean surface from the sunlight the following day. So the day after a major large convective system, the surface conditions do not favour another round of convection; therefore, convection occurs in neighbouring regions unaffected by the previous convective systems. We call this spatially selective behaviour of the large systems diurnal dancing. the boundary-layer recovery phase leads to a tendency for the large systems to occur every other day at a given location. This 2-day periodicity appears to phase-lock with westward-propagating equatorial inertio-gravity waves of similar frequency. the combination of the diurnal surface-cloudradiation interaction and equatorial inertio-gravity waves may explain the observed westward-propagating 2-day disturbances in cold cloud tops over the warm pool.},
  copyright = {Copyright {\textcopyright} 1997 Royal Meteorological Society},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {`Diurnal dancing',Convective cloud cover,Intra-seasonal oscillation,notion,Tropical cloud systems,Two-day waves},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/YG9DHFWS/qj.html}
}

@article{davies_cloud_2017,
  title = {Cloud Heights Measured by {{MISR}} from 2000 to 2015},
  author = {Davies, Roger and Jovanovic, Veljko M. and Moroney, Catherine M.},
  year = {2017},
  journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres},
  volume = {122},
  number = {7},
  pages = {3975--3986},
  issn = {2169-8996},
  doi = {10.1002/2017JD026456},
  urldate = {2023-09-06},
  abstract = {Davies and Molloy (2012) reported a decrease in the global effective cloud height over the first 10 years of Multiangle Imaging Spectroradiometer (MISR) measurements on the Terra satellite. We have reexamined their time series for possible artefacts that might especially affect the initial portion of the record when the heights appeared anomalously high. While variations in sampling were shown to be inconsequential, an artefact due to the change in equator crossing time that affected the first 2 years was discovered, and this has now been corrected. That correction, together with the extension of the time series by five more years, yields no significant overall trend in global heights during the first 15 years of Terra operation. The time series is dominated by large interannual fluctuations associated with La Ni{\~n}a events that mask any overall trend on a global scale. On a regional basis, the cloud heights showed significant interannual variations of much larger amplitude, sometimes with fairly direct cancellation between regions. There were unexplained differences between the two hemispheres in the timing of height anomalies. These differences persisted over a large range of extratropical latitudes, suggestive of teleconnections. Within the tropics, there were very strong changes associated with the Central Pacific and Indonesian Maritime Continent regions that oscillated out of phase with each other, with interannual amplitudes that exceeded 1 km.},
  copyright = {{\textcopyright}2017. American Geophysical Union. All Rights Reserved.},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {effective cloud height,ENSO,equatorial clouds,global time series,MISR stereo heights,notion,teleconnections},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/25DP4RH9/Davies et al. - 2017 - Cloud heights measured by MISR from 2000 to 2015.pdf;/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/V2U5K8X2/2017JD026456.html}
}

@article{delgenio_climatic_2002,
  title = {Climatic {{Properties}} of {{Tropical Precipitating Convection}} under {{Varying Environmental Conditions}}},
  author = {Del Genio, Anthony D. and Kovari, William},
  year = {2002},
  month = sep,
  journal = {Journal of Climate},
  volume = {15},
  number = {18},
  pages = {2597--2615},
  publisher = {{American Meteorological Society}},
  issn = {0894-8755, 1520-0442},
  doi = {10.1175/1520-0442(2002)015<2597:CPOTPC>2.0.CO;2},
  urldate = {2023-05-24},
  abstract = {Abstract A clustering algorithm is used to define the radiative, hydrological, and microphysical properties of precipitating convective events in the equatorial region observed by the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) satellite. Storms are separated by surface type, size, and updraft strength, the latter defined by the presence or absence of lightning. SST data and global reanalysis products are used to explore sensitivity to changes in environmental conditions. Small storms are much more numerous than mesoscale convective systems, and account for fairly little of the total rainfall but contribute significantly to reflection of sunlight. Lightning storms rain more heavily, have greater cloud area, extend to higher altitude, and have higher albedos than storms without lightning. Lightning is favored by a steep lower-troposphere lapse rate and moist midlevel humidity. Storms occur more often at SST {$\geq$} 28{\textdegree}C and with strong upward 500-mb mean vertical velocity. In general, storms over warmer ocean waters rain more heavily, are larger, and have higher cloud tops, but they do not have noticeably higher albedos than storms over cooler ocean waters. Mesoscale convective system properties are more sensitive to SST. Rain rates and cloud-top heights increase statistically significantly with mean upward motion. Rain rates increase with albedo and cloud-top height over ocean, but over land there are also storms with cloud-top temperatures {$>-$}35{\textdegree}C whose rain rates decrease with increasing albedo. Both the fraction of available moisture that rains out and the fraction that detrains as ice increase with SST, the former faster than the latter. TRMM ice water paths derived from cloud-resolving models but constrained by observed microwave radiances are only weakly correlated with observed albedo. The results are inconsistent with the ``adaptive iris'' hypothesis and suggest feedbacks due primarily to increasing convective cloud cover with warming, but more weakly than predicted by the ``thermostat'' hypothesis.},
  chapter = {Journal of Climate},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {notion},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/MWBISHTK/Genio and Kovari - 2002 - Climatic Properties of Tropical Precipitating Conv.pdf}
}

@article{feng_global_2021,
  title = {A {{Global High-Resolution Mesoscale Convective System Database Using Satellite-Derived Cloud Tops}}, {{Surface Precipitation}}, and {{Tracking}}},
  author = {Feng, Zhe and Leung, L. Ruby and Liu, Nana and Wang, Jingyu and Houze Jr, Robert A. and Li, Jianfeng and Hardin, Joseph C. and Chen, Dandan and Guo, Jianping},
  year = {2021},
  journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres},
  volume = {126},
  number = {8},
  pages = {e2020JD034202},
  issn = {2169-8996},
  doi = {10.1029/2020JD034202},
  urldate = {2023-05-24},
  abstract = {A new methodology is developed to construct a global (60{\textdegree}S{\textendash}60{\textdegree}N) long-term (2000{\textendash}2019) high-resolution ({$\sim$}10-km h) mesoscale convective system (MCS) database by tracking MCS jointly using geostationary satellite infrared brightness temperature (Tb) and precipitation feature (PF) characteristics from the Integrated Multi-satellitE Retrievals for GPM precipitation data sets. Independent validation shows that the satellite-based MCS data set is able to reproduce important MCS statistics derived from ground-based radar network observations in the United States and China. We show that by carefully considering key PF characteristics in addition to Tb signatures, the new method significantly improves upon previous Tb-only methods in detecting MCSs in the midlatitudes for all seasons. Results show that MCSs account for over 50\% of annual total rainfall across most of the tropical belt and in selected regions of the midlatitudes, with a strong seasonality over many regions of the globe. The tracking database allows Lagrangian aspects such as MCS lifetime and translational speed and direction to be analyzed. The longest-lived MCSs preferentially occur over the subtropical oceans. The land MCSs have higher cloud-tops associated with more intense convection, and oceanic MCSs have much higher rainfall production. While MCSs are observed in many regions of the globe, there are fundamental differences in their dynamic and thermodynamic structures that warrant a better understanding of processes that control their evolution. This global database provides significant opportunities for observational and modeling studies of MCSs, their characteristics, and roles in regional and global water and energy cycles, as well as their hydrologic and other impacts.},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {convective clouds,global climatology,mesoscale convection,notion,precipitation,satellite observations,storm tracking},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/ND5NE5Z9/Feng et al. - 2021 - A Global High-Resolution Mesoscale Convective Syst.pdf;/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/S9M99UUL/2020JD034202.html}
}

@article{feng_pyflextrkr_2022,
  title = {{{PyFLEXTRKR}}: A {{Flexible Feature Tracking Python Software}} for {{Convective Cloud Analysis}}},
  shorttitle = {{{PyFLEXTRKR}}},
  author = {Feng, Zhe and Hardin, Joseph and Barnes, Hannah C. and Li, Jianfeng and Leung, L. Ruby and Varble, Adam and Zhang, Zhixiao},
  year = {2022},
  month = nov,
  journal = {EGUsphere},
  pages = {1--29},
  publisher = {{Copernicus GmbH}},
  doi = {10.5194/egusphere-2022-1136},
  urldate = {2023-05-18},
  abstract = {{$<$}p{$><$}strong class="journal-contentHeaderColor"{$>$}Abstract.{$<$}/strong{$>$} This paper describes the new open-source framework PyFLEXTRKR (Python FLEXible object TRacKeR), a flexible atmospheric feature tracking software package with specific capabilities to track convective clouds from a variety of observations and model simulations. This software can track any atmospheric 2D objects and handle merging and splitting explicitly. The package has a collection of multi-object identification algorithms, scalable parallelization options and has been optimized for large datasets including global high-resolution data. We demonstrate applications of PyFLEXTRKR on tracking individual deep convective cells and mesoscale convective systems from observations and model simulations ranging from large-eddy resolving ({\textasciitilde}100s m) to mesoscale ({\textasciitilde}10s km) resolutions. Visualization, post-processing, and statistical analysis tools are included in the package. New Lagrangian analyses of convective clouds produced by PyFLEXTRKR applicable to a wide range of datasets and scales facilitate advanced model evaluation and development efforts as well as scientific discovery.{$<$}/p{$>$}},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {notion},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/3JFCDUU8/Feng et al. - 2022 - PyFLEXTRKR a Flexible Feature Tracking Python Sof.pdf}
}

@article{feng_topofatmosphere_2011a,
  title = {Top-of-Atmosphere Radiation Budget of Convective Core/Stratiform Rain and Anvil Clouds from Deep Convective Systems},
  author = {Feng, Zhe and Dong, Xiquan and Xi, Baike and Schumacher, Courtney and Minnis, Patrick and Khaiyer, Mandana},
  year = {2011},
  journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres},
  volume = {116},
  number = {D23},
  issn = {2156-2202},
  doi = {10.1029/2011JD016451},
  urldate = {2023-09-05},
  abstract = {A new hybrid classification algorithm to objectively identify Deep Convective Systems (DCSs) in radar and satellite observations has been developed. This algorithm can classify the convective cores (CC), stratiform rain (SR) area and nonprecipitating anvil cloud (AC) from the identified DCSs through an integrative analysis of ground-based scanning radar and geostationary satellite data over the Southern Great Plains. In developing the algorithm, AC is delineated into transitional, thick, and thin components. While there are distinct physical/dynamical differences among these subcategories, their top-of-atmosphere (TOA) radiative fluxes are not significantly different. Therefore, these anvil subcategories are grouped as total anvil, and the radiative impact of each DCS component on the TOA radiation budget is quantitatively estimated. We found that more DCSs occurred during late afternoon, producing peak AC fraction right after sunset. AC covers 3 times the area of SR and almost an order of magnitude larger than CC. The average outgoing longwave (LW) irradiances are almost identical for CC and SR, while slightly higher for AC. Compared to the clear-sky average, the reflected shortwave (SW) fluxes for the three DCS components are greater by a factor of 2{\textendash}3 and create a strong cooling effect at TOA. The calculated SW and LW cloud radiative forcing (CRF) of AC contribute up to 31\% of total NET CRF, while CC and SR contribute only 4 and 11\%, respectively. The hybrid classification further lays the groundwork for studying the life cycle of DCS and improvements in geostationary satellite IR-based precipitation retrievals.},
  copyright = {Copyright 2011 by the American Geophysical Union},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {anvil,cloud,convective,core,notion,radiation,stratiform},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/C7IRC5KS/Feng et al. - 2011 - Top-of-atmosphere radiation budget of convective c.pdf;/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/RXAPN3N8/Feng et al. - 2011 - Top-of-atmosphere radiation budget of convective c.pdf;/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/7V6AKF88/2011JD016451.html}
}

@article{fiolleau_algorithm_2013,
  title = {An {{Algorithm}} for the {{Detection}} and {{Tracking}} of {{Tropical Mesoscale Convective Systems Using Infrared Images From Geostationary Satellite}}},
  author = {Fiolleau, Thomas and Roca, R{\'e}my},
  year = {2013},
  month = jul,
  journal = {IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing},
  volume = {51},
  number = {7},
  pages = {4302--4315},
  issn = {1558-0644},
  doi = {10.1109/TGRS.2012.2227762},
  abstract = {This paper focuses on the tracking of mesoscale convective systems (MCS) from geostationary satellite infrared data in the tropical regions. In the past, several automatic tracking algorithms have been elaborated to tackle this problem. However, these techniques suffer from limitations in describing convection at the ``true'' scale and in depicting coherent MCS life cycles (split and merge artifacts). To overcome these issues, a new algorithm called Tracking Of Organized Convection Algorithm through a 3-D segmentatioN has been developed and is presented in this paper. This method operates in a time sequence of infrared images to identify and track MCS and is based on an iterative process of 3-D segmentation of the volume of infrared images. The objective of the new tracking algorithm is to associate the convective core of an MCS to its anvil cloud in the spatiotemporal domain. The technique is applied on various case studies over West Africa, Bay of Bengal, and South America. The efficiency of the new algorithm is established from an analysis of the case studies and via a statistical analysis showing that the cold cloud shield defined by a 235-K threshold in the spatiotemporal domain is decomposed into realistic MCSs. In comparison with an overlap-based tracking algorithm, the analysis reveals that MCSs are detected earlier in life cycle and later in their dissipation stages. Moreover, MCSs identified are not anymore affected by split and merge events along their life cycles, allowing a better characterization of their morphological parameters along their life cycles.},
  keywords = {Brightness temperature,Clouds,Clustering algorithms,Convective systems,Image segmentation,meteorology,notion,Sociology,Spatiotemporal phenomena,Statistics,tracking,tropical regions},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/2ZV2Z85K/Fiolleau and Roca - 2013 - An Algorithm for the Detection and Tracking of Tro.pdf;/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/Q89TS4NU/Fiolleau and Roca - 2013 - An Algorithm for the Detection and Tracking of Tro.pdf;/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/TBEM4X2E/6423276.html}
}

@article{futyan_deep_2007,
  title = {Deep {{Convective System Evolution}} over {{Africa}} and the {{Tropical Atlantic}}},
  author = {Futyan, Joanna M. and Del Genio, Anthony D.},
  year = {2007},
  month = oct,
  journal = {Journal of Climate},
  volume = {20},
  number = {20},
  pages = {5041--5060},
  publisher = {{American Meteorological Society}},
  issn = {0894-8755, 1520-0442},
  doi = {10.1175/JCLI4297.1},
  urldate = {2023-05-24},
  abstract = {Abstract In the tropical African and neighboring Atlantic region there is a strong contrast in the properties of deep convection between land and ocean. Here, satellite radar observations are used to produce a composite picture of the life cycle of convection in these two regions. Estimates of the broadband thermal flux from the geostationary Meteosat-8 satellite are used to identify and track organized convective systems over their life cycle. The evolution of the system size and vertical extent are used to define five life cycle stages (warm and cold developing, mature, cold and warm dissipating), providing the basis for the composite analysis of the system evolution. The tracked systems are matched to overpasses of the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission satellite, and a composite picture of the evolution of various radar and lightning characteristics is built up. The results suggest a fundamental difference in the convective life cycle between land and ocean. African storms evolve from convectively active systems with frequent lightning in their developing stages to more stratiform conditions as they dissipate. Over the Atlantic, the convective fraction remains essentially constant into the dissipating stages, and lightning occurrence peaks late in the life cycle. This behavior is consistent with differences in convective sustainability in land and ocean regions as proposed in previous studies. The area expansion rate during the developing stages of convection is used to provide an estimate of the intensity of convection. Reasonable correlations are found between this index and the convective system lifetime, size, and depth.},
  chapter = {Journal of Climate},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {notion},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/JDBZ5XYR/Futyan and Genio - 2007 - Deep Convective System Evolution over Africa and t.pdf}
}

@article{gasparini_opinion_2023b,
  title = {Opinion: {{Tropical}} Cirrus {\textendash} from Micro-Scale Processes to Climate-Scale Impacts},
  shorttitle = {Opinion},
  author = {Gasparini, Bla{\v z} and Sullivan, Sylvia C. and Sokol, Adam B. and K{\"a}rcher, Bernd and Jensen, Eric and Hartmann, Dennis L.},
  year = {2023},
  month = dec,
  journal = {Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics},
  volume = {23},
  number = {24},
  pages = {15413--15444},
  publisher = {{Copernicus GmbH}},
  issn = {1680-7316},
  doi = {10.5194/acp-23-15413-2023},
  urldate = {2024-02-01},
  abstract = {Tropical cirrus clouds, i.e., any type of ice cloud with tops above 400 hPa, play a critical role in the climate system and are a major source of uncertainty in our understanding of global warming. Tropical cirrus clouds involve processes spanning a wide range of spatial and temporal scales, from ice microphysics on cloud scales to mesoscale convective organization and planetary wave dynamics. This complexity makes tropical cirrus clouds notoriously difficult to model and has left many important questions stubbornly unanswered. At the same time, their multi-scale nature makes them well-positioned to benefit from the rise of global, high-resolution simulations of Earth's atmosphere and a growing abundance of remotely sensed and in situ observations. Rapid progress on our understanding of tropical cirrus requires coordinated efforts to take advantage of these modern computational and observational abilities.  In this opinion paper, we review recent progress in cirrus studies, highlight important unanswered questions, and discuss promising paths forward. Significant progress has been made in understanding the life cycle of convectively generated ``anvil'' cirrus and the response of their macrophysical properties to large-scale controls. On the other hand, much work remains to be done to fully understand how small-scale anvil processes and the climatological anvil radiative effect will respond to global warming. Thin, in situ formed cirrus clouds are now known to be closely tied to the thermal structure and humidity of the tropical tropopause layer, but microphysical uncertainties prevent a full understanding of this link, as well as the precise amount of water vapor entering the stratosphere. Model representation of ice-nucleating particles, water vapor supersaturation, and ice depositional growth continue to pose great challenges to cirrus modeling. We believe that major advances in the understanding of tropical cirrus can be made through a combination of cross-tool synthesis and cross-scale studies conducted by cross-disciplinary research teams.},
  langid = {english},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/KFNUS27V/Gasparini et al. - 2023 - Opinion Tropical cirrus – from micro-scale proces.pdf}
}

@article{harrop_role_2016,
  title = {The Role of Cloud Radiative Heating within the Atmosphere on the High Cloud Amount and Top-of-Atmosphere Cloud Radiative Effect},
  author = {Harrop, Bryce E. and Hartmann, Dennis L.},
  year = {2016},
  journal = {Journal of Advances in Modeling Earth Systems},
  volume = {8},
  number = {3},
  pages = {1391--1410},
  issn = {1942-2466},
  doi = {10.1002/2016MS000670},
  urldate = {2023-05-24},
  abstract = {The effect of cloud-radiation interactions on cloud properties is examined in the context of a limited-domain cloud-resolving model. The atmospheric cloud radiative effect (ACRE) influences the areal extent of tropical high clouds in two distinct ways. The first is through direct radiative destabilization of the elevated cloud layers, mostly as a result of longwave radiation heating the cloud bottom and cooling the cloud top. The second effect is radiative stabilization, whereby cloud radiative heating of the atmospheric column stabilizes the atmosphere to deep convection. In limited area domain simulations, the stabilizing (or indirect) effect is the dominant role of the cloud radiative heating, thus reducing the cloud cover in simulations where ACRE is included compared to those where it is removed. Direct cloud radiative heating increases high cloud fraction, decreases mean cloud optical depth, and increases cloud top temperature. The indirect cloud radiative heating decreases high cloud fraction, but also decreases mean cloud optical depth and increases cloud top temperature. The combination of these effects increases the top-of-atmosphere cloud radiative effect. In mock-Walker circulation experiments, the decrease in high cloud amount owing to radiative stabilization tends to cancel out the increase in high cloud amount owing to the destabilization within the cloud layer. The changes in cloud optical depth and cloud top pressure, however, are similar to those produced in the limited area domain simulations.},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {cloud radiative effect,clouds,notion,radiative transfer},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/IRM5VWSS/Harrop and Hartmann - 2016 - The role of cloud radiative heating within the atm.pdf;/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/L3447DTI/2016MS000670.html}
}

@article{hartmann_effect_1992,
  title = {The {{Effect}} of {{Cloud Type}} on {{Earth}}'s {{Energy Balance}}: {{Global Analysis}}},
  shorttitle = {The {{Effect}} of {{Cloud Type}} on {{Earth}}'s {{Energy Balance}}},
  author = {Hartmann, Dennis L. and {Ockert-Bell}, Maureen E. and Michelsen, Marc L.},
  year = {1992},
  month = nov,
  journal = {Journal of Climate},
  volume = {5},
  number = {11},
  pages = {1281--1304},
  publisher = {{American Meteorological Society}},
  issn = {0894-8755, 1520-0442},
  doi = {10.1175/1520-0442(1992)005<1281:TEOCTO>2.0.CO;2},
  urldate = {2023-05-24},
  abstract = {Abstract The role of fractional area coverage by cloud types in the energy balance of the earth is investigated through joint use of International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project (ISCCP) C1 cloud data and Earth Radiation Budget Experiment (ERBE) broadband energy flux data for the one-year period March 1985 through February 1986. Multiple linear regression is used to relate the radiation budget data to the cloud data. Comparing cloud forcing estimates obtained from the ISCCP-ERBE regression with those derived from the ERBE scene identification shows generally good agreement except over snow, in tropical convective regions, and in regions that are either nearly cloudless or always overcast. It is suggested that a substantial fraction of the disagreement in longwave cloud forcing in tropical convective regions is associated with the fact that the ERBE scene identification does not take into account variations in upper-tropospheric water vapor. On a global average basis, low clouds make the largest contribution to the net energy balance of the earth, because they cover such a large area and because their albedo effect dominates their effect on emitted thermal radiation. High, optically thick clouds can also very effectively reduce the energy balance, however, because their very high albedos overcome their low emission temperatures.},
  chapter = {Journal of Climate},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {notion},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/9B24JRW4/Hartmann et al. - 1992 - The Effect of Cloud Type on Earth's Energy Balance.pdf}
}

@article{hartmann_important_2002,
  title = {An Important Constraint on Tropical Cloud - Climate Feedback},
  author = {Hartmann, Dennis L. and Larson, Kristin},
  year = {2002},
  journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},
  volume = {29},
  number = {20},
  pages = {12-1-12-4},
  issn = {1944-8007},
  doi = {10.1029/2002GL015835},
  urldate = {2023-05-24},
  abstract = {Tropical convective anvil clouds detrain preferentially near 200 hPa. It is argued here that this occurs because clear-sky radiative cooling decreases rapidly near 200 hPa. This rapid decline of clear-sky longwave cooling occurs because radiative emission from water vapor becomes inefficient above 200 hPa. The emission from water vapor becomes less important than the emission from CO2 because the saturation vapor pressure is so very low at the temperatures above 200 hPa. This suggests that the temperature at the detrainment level, and consequently the emission temperature of tropical anvil clouds, will remain constant during climate change. This constraint has very important implications for the potential role of tropical convective clouds in climate feedback, since it means that the emission temperatures of tropical anvil clouds and upper tropospheric water vapor are essentially independent of the surface temperature, so long as the tropopause is colder than the temperature where emission from water vapor becomes relatively small.},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {notion},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/UGVBYT7S/Hartmann and Larson - 2002 - An important constraint on tropical cloud - climat.pdf;/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/5TW9TIVY/2002GL015835.html}
}

@article{hartmann_tropical_2016,
  title = {Tropical Anvil Clouds and Climate Sensitivity},
  author = {Hartmann, Dennis L.},
  year = {2016},
  month = aug,
  journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences},
  volume = {113},
  number = {32},
  pages = {8897--8899},
  publisher = {{Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences}},
  doi = {10.1073/pnas.1610455113},
  urldate = {2023-09-01},
  keywords = {notion},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/7IF6GT5U/Hartmann - 2016 - Tropical anvil clouds and climate sensitivity.pdf;/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/C2YYXXY3/Hartmann - 2016 - Tropical anvil clouds and climate sensitivity.pdf}
}

@article{heikenfeld_tobac_2019,
  title = {Tobac 1.2: Towards a Flexible Framework for Tracking and Analysis of Clouds in Diverse Datasets},
  shorttitle = {Tobac 1.2},
  author = {Heikenfeld, Max and Marinescu, Peter J. and Christensen, Matthew and {Watson-Parris}, Duncan and Senf, Fabian and {van den Heever}, Susan C. and Stier, Philip},
  year = {2019},
  month = oct,
  journal = {Geoscientific Model Development},
  volume = {12},
  number = {11},
  pages = {4551--4570},
  publisher = {{Copernicus GmbH}},
  issn = {1991-959X},
  doi = {10.5194/gmd-12-4551-2019},
  urldate = {2023-08-16},
  abstract = {We introduce tobac (Tracking and Object-Based Analysis of Clouds), a newly developed framework for tracking and analysing individual clouds in different types of datasets, such as cloud-resolving model simulations and geostationary satellite retrievals. The software has been designed to be used flexibly with any two- or three-dimensional time-varying input. The application of high-level data formats, such as Iris cubes or xarray arrays, for input and output allows for convenient use of metadata in the tracking analysis and visualisation. Comprehensive analysis routines are provided to derive properties like cloud lifetimes or statistics of cloud properties along with tools to visualise the results in a convenient way. The application of tobac is presented in two examples. We first track and analyse scattered deep convective cells based on maximum vertical velocity and the three-dimensional condensate mixing ratio field in cloud-resolving model simulations. We also investigate the performance of the tracking algorithm for different choices of time resolution of the model output. In the second application, we show how the framework can be used to effectively combine information from two different types of datasets by simultaneously tracking convective clouds in model simulations and in geostationary satellite images based on outgoing longwave radiation. The tobac framework provides a flexible new way to include the evolution of the characteristics of individual clouds in a range of important analyses like model intercomparison studies or model assessment based on observational data.},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {notion},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/CG6LJER2/Heikenfeld et al. - 2019 - tobac 1.2 towards a flexible framework for tracki.pdf;/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/LSP7X3P5/2019.html}
}

@article{held_robust_2006,
  title = {Robust {{Responses}} of the {{Hydrological Cycle}} to {{Global Warming}}},
  author = {Held, Isaac M. and Soden, Brian J.},
  year = {2006},
  month = nov,
  journal = {Journal of Climate},
  volume = {19},
  number = {21},
  pages = {5686--5699},
  publisher = {{American Meteorological Society}},
  issn = {0894-8755, 1520-0442},
  doi = {10.1175/JCLI3990.1},
  urldate = {2023-09-06},
  abstract = {Abstract Using the climate change experiments generated for the Fourth Assessment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, this study examines some aspects of the changes in the hydrological cycle that are robust across the models. These responses include the decrease in convective mass fluxes, the increase in horizontal moisture transport, the associated enhancement of the pattern of evaporation minus precipitation and its temporal variance, and the decrease in the horizontal sensible heat transport in the extratropics. A surprising finding is that a robust decrease in extratropical sensible heat transport is found only in the equilibrium climate response, as estimated in slab ocean responses to the doubling of CO2, and not in transient climate change scenarios. All of these robust responses are consequences of the increase in lower-tropospheric water vapor.},
  chapter = {Journal of Climate},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {notion},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/SC9MTVQ6/Held and Soden - 2006 - Robust Responses of the Hydrological Cycle to Glob.pdf;/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/YMDCNXBT/Held and Soden - 2006 - Robust Responses of the Hydrological Cycle to Glob.pdf;/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/YHZ3C5BW/JCLI3990.html}
}

@article{hersbach_era5_2020,
  title = {The {{ERA5}} Global Reanalysis},
  author = {Hersbach, Hans and Bell, Bill and Berrisford, Paul and Hirahara, Shoji and Hor{\'a}nyi, Andr{\'a}s and {Mu{\~n}oz-Sabater}, Joaqu{\'i}n and Nicolas, Julien and Peubey, Carole and Radu, Raluca and Schepers, Dinand and Simmons, Adrian and Soci, Cornel and Abdalla, Saleh and Abellan, Xavier and Balsamo, Gianpaolo and Bechtold, Peter and Biavati, Gionata and Bidlot, Jean and Bonavita, Massimo and De Chiara, Giovanna and Dahlgren, Per and Dee, Dick and Diamantakis, Michail and Dragani, Rossana and Flemming, Johannes and Forbes, Richard and Fuentes, Manuel and Geer, Alan and Haimberger, Leo and Healy, Sean and Hogan, Robin J. and H{\'o}lm, El{\'i}as and Janiskov{\'a}, Marta and Keeley, Sarah and Laloyaux, Patrick and Lopez, Philippe and Lupu, Cristina and Radnoti, Gabor and {de Rosnay}, Patricia and Rozum, Iryna and Vamborg, Freja and Villaume, Sebastien and Th{\'e}paut, Jean-No{\"e}l},
  year = {2020},
  journal = {Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society},
  volume = {146},
  number = {730},
  pages = {1999--2049},
  issn = {1477-870X},
  doi = {10.1002/qj.3803},
  urldate = {2023-05-24},
  abstract = {Within the Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S), ECMWF is producing the ERA5 reanalysis which, once completed, will embody a detailed record of the global atmosphere, land surface and ocean waves from 1950 onwards. This new reanalysis replaces the ERA-Interim reanalysis (spanning 1979 onwards) which was started in 2006. ERA5 is based on the Integrated Forecasting System (IFS) Cy41r2 which was operational in 2016. ERA5 thus benefits from a decade of developments in model physics, core dynamics and data assimilation. In addition to a significantly enhanced horizontal resolution of 31 km, compared to 80 km for ERA-Interim, ERA5 has hourly output throughout, and an uncertainty estimate from an ensemble (3-hourly at half the horizontal resolution). This paper describes the general set-up of ERA5, as well as a basic evaluation of characteristics and performance, with a focus on the dataset from 1979 onwards which is currently publicly available. Re-forecasts from ERA5 analyses show a gain of up to one day in skill with respect to ERA-Interim. Comparison with radiosonde and PILOT data prior to assimilation shows an improved fit for temperature, wind and humidity in the troposphere, but not the stratosphere. A comparison with independent buoy data shows a much improved fit for ocean wave height. The uncertainty estimate reflects the evolution of the observing systems used in ERA5. The enhanced temporal and spatial resolution allows for a detailed evolution of weather systems. For precipitation, global-mean correlation with monthly-mean GPCP data is increased from 67\% to 77\%. In general, low-frequency variability is found to be well represented and from 10 hPa downwards general patterns of anomalies in temperature match those from the ERA-Interim, MERRA-2 and JRA-55 reanalyses.},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {climate reanalysis,Copernicus Climate Change Service,data assimilation,ERA5,historical observations,notion},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/3GN58ZN7/Hersbach et al. - 2020 - The ERA5 global reanalysis.pdf}
}

@article{hill_climate_2023,
  title = {Climate {{Models Underestimate Dynamic Cloud Feedbacks}} in the {{Tropics}}},
  author = {Hill, P. G. and Holloway, C. E. and Byrne, M. P. and Lambert, F. H. and Webb, M. J.},
  year = {2023},
  journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},
  volume = {50},
  number = {15},
  pages = {e2023GL104573},
  issn = {1944-8007},
  doi = {10.1029/2023GL104573},
  urldate = {2023-09-06},
  abstract = {Cloud feedbacks are the leading cause of uncertainty in climate sensitivity. The complex coupling between clouds and the large-scale circulation in the tropics contributes to this uncertainty. To address this problem, the coupling between clouds and circulation in the latest generation of climate models is compared to observations. Significant biases are identified in the models. The implications of these biases are assessed by combining observations of the present day with future changes predicted by models to calculate observationally constrained feedbacks. For the dynamic cloud feedback (i.e., due to changes in circulation), the observationally constrained values are consistently larger than the model-only values. This is due to models failing to capture a nonlinear minimum in cloud brightness for weakly descending regimes. Consequently, while the models consistently predict that these regimes increase in frequency in association with a weakening tropical circulation, they underestimate the positive cloud feedback associated with this increase.},
  copyright = {{\textcopyright} 2023. The Authors.},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {notion},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/477842DZ/Hill et al. - 2023 - Climate Models Underestimate Dynamic Cloud Feedbac.pdf;/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/X4P7YMCZ/2023GL104573.html}
}

@article{horner_evolution_2022,
  title = {The Evolution of Deep Convective Systems and Their Associated Cirrus Outflows},
  author = {Horner, George Alfred and Gryspeerdt, Edward},
  year = {2022},
  month = nov,
  journal = {Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics Discussions},
  pages = {1--22},
  publisher = {{Copernicus GmbH}},
  doi = {10.5194/acp-2022-755},
  urldate = {2023-05-24},
  abstract = {{$<$}p{$><$}strong class="journal-contentHeaderColor"{$>$}Abstract.{$<$}/strong{$>$} Tropical deep convective clouds, particularly their large cirrus outflows, play an important role in modulating the energy balance of the Earth\&rsquo;s atmosphere. Whilst the cores of these deep convective clouds have a significant shortwave (SW) cooling effect, they dissipate quickly. Conversely, the thin cirrus that flow from these cores can persist for days after the core has dissipated, reaching hundreds of kilometers in extent. These thin cirrus have a potential for large warming in the tropics. Understanding the evolution of these clouds and how they change in response to anthropogenic emissions is therefore important to understand past and future climate change.{$<$}/p{$>$} {$<$}p{$>$}This work uses a novel approach to investigate the evolution of tropical convective clouds by introducing the concept of \&lsquo;Time Since Convection\&rsquo; (TSC). This is used to build a composite picture of the lifecycle of deep convection, from anvil cirrus to thin detrained cirrus. Cloud properties are a strong function of time since convection, showing decreases in the optical thickness, cloud top height, and cloud fraction over time. After an initial dissipation of the convective core, changes in thin cirrus cloud amount were seen beyond 200 hours from convection.{$<$}/p{$>$} {$<$}p{$>$}Finally, in the initial stages of convection there was a large net negative cloud radiative effect (CRE). However, once the convective core had dissipated after 6\&ndash;12 hours, the sign of the CRE flipped, and there was a sustained net warming CRE beyond 120 hours from the convective event. Changes are present in the cloud properties long after the main convective activities have dissipated, signalling the need to continue further analysis at longer time scales than previously studied.{$<$}/p{$>$}},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {notion},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/7JGYNV6Q/Horner and Gryspeerdt - 2022 - The evolution of deep convective systems and their.pdf}
}

@article{houze_mesoscale_2004,
  title = {Mesoscale Convective Systems},
  author = {Houze, Robert A.},
  year = {2004},
  journal = {Reviews of Geophysics},
  volume = {42},
  number = {4},
  issn = {1944-9208},
  doi = {10.1029/2004RG000150},
  urldate = {2019-05-02},
  abstract = {Mesoscale convective systems (MCSs) have regions of both convective and stratiform precipitation, and they develop mesoscale circulations as they mature. The upward motion takes the form of a deep-layer ascent drawn into the MCS in response to the latent heating and cooling in the convective region. The ascending layer overturns as it rises but overall retains a coherent layer structure. A middle level layer of inflow enters the stratiform region of the MCS from a direction determined by the large-scale flow and descends in response to diabatic cooling at middle-to-low levels. A middle level mesoscale convective vortex (MCV) develops in the stratiform region, prolongs the MCS, and may contribute to tropical cyclone development. The propagation of an MCS may have a discrete component but may further be influenced by waves and disturbances generated both in response to the MCS and external to the MCS. Waves of a larger scale may affect the propagation velocity by phase locking with the MCS in a cooperative mode. The horizontal scale of an MCS may be limited either by a balance between the formation rate of convective precipitation and dissipation of stratiform precipitation or by the Rossby radius of the MCV. The vertical redistribution of momentum by an MCS depends on the size of the stratiform region, while the net vertical profile of heating of the large-scale environment depends on the amount of stratiform rain. Regional variability of the stratiform rain from MCSs affects the large-scale circulation's response to MCS heating.},
  copyright = {Copyright 2004 by the American Geophysical Union.},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {convective processes,mesoscale meteorology,notion,precipitation},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/DTE87FQI/Houze - 2004 - Mesoscale convective systems.pdf;/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/RFFINGCI/2004RG000150.html}
}

@article{igel_cloudsat_2014,
  title = {A {{CloudSat}} Cloud Object Partitioning Technique and Assessment and Integration of Deep Convective Anvil Sensitivities to Sea Surface Temperature},
  author = {Igel, Matthew R. and Drager, Aryeh J. and {van den Heever}, Susan C.},
  year = {2014},
  journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres},
  volume = {119},
  number = {17},
  pages = {10515--10535},
  issn = {2169-8996},
  doi = {10.1002/2014JD021717},
  urldate = {2023-08-16},
  abstract = {A cloud object partitioning algorithm is developed to provide a widely useful database of deep convective clouds. It takes contiguous CloudSat cloudy regions and identifies various length scales of clouds from a tropical, oceanic subset of data. The methodology identifies a level above which anvil characteristics become important by analyzing the cloud object shape. Below this level in what is termed the pedestal region, convective cores are identified based on reflectivity maxima. Identifying these regions allows for the assessment of length scales of the anvil and pedestal of deep convective clouds. Cloud objects are also appended with certain environmental quantities from European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts. Simple geospatial and temporal assessments show that the cloud object technique agrees with standard observations of local frequency of deep convective cloudiness. Deep convective clouds over tropical oceans play important roles in Earth's climate system. The newly developed data set is used to evaluate the response of tropical, deep convective clouds to sea surface temperature (SST). Several previously proposed responses are examined: the Fixed Anvil Temperature Hypothesis, the Iris Hypothesis, and the Thermostat Hypothesis. When the data are analyzed per cloud object, increasing SST is found to be associated with increased anvil thickness, decreased anvil width, and cooler cloud top temperatures. Implications for the corresponding hypotheses are discussed. A new response suggesting that the base temperature of deep convective anvils remains approximately constant with increasing SSTs is introduced. These cloud dependencies on SST are integrated to form a more comprehensive theory for deep convective anvil responses to SST.},
  copyright = {{\textcopyright}2014. American Geophysical Union. All Rights Reserved.},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {anvils,CloudSat,convection,notion},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/2LLRD49I/Igel et al. - 2014 - A CloudSat cloud object partitioning technique and.pdf;/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/BSB5JKB6/2014JD021717.html}
}

@article{jeevanjee_simple_2020,
  title = {Simple {{Spectral Models}} for {{Atmospheric Radiative Cooling}}},
  author = {Jeevanjee, Nadir and Fueglistaler, Stephan},
  year = {2020},
  month = jan,
  journal = {Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences},
  volume = {77},
  number = {2},
  pages = {479--497},
  publisher = {{American Meteorological Society}},
  issn = {0022-4928, 1520-0469},
  doi = {10.1175/JAS-D-18-0347.1},
  urldate = {2023-09-01},
  abstract = {Abstract Atmospheric radiative cooling is a fundamental aspect of Earth's greenhouse effect, and is intrinsically connected to atmospheric motions. At the same time, basic aspects of longwave radiative cooling, such as its characteristic value of 2 K day-1, its sharp decline (or ``kink'') in the upper troposphere, and the large values of CO2 cooling in the stratosphere, are difficult to understand intuitively or estimate with pencil and paper. Here we pursue such understanding by building simple spectral (rather than gray) models for clear-sky radiative cooling. We construct these models by combining the cooling-to-space approximation with simplified greenhouse gas spectroscopy and analytical expressions for optical depth, and we validate these simple models with line-by-line calculations. We find that cooling rates can be expressed as a product of the Planck function, a vertical emissivity gradient, and a characteristic spectral width derived from our simplified spectroscopy. This expression allows for a pencil-and-paper estimate of the 2 K day-1 tropospheric cooling rate, as well as an explanation of enhanced CO2 cooling rates in the stratosphere. We also link the upper-tropospheric kink in radiative cooling to the distribution of H2O absorption coefficients, and from this derive an analytical expression for the kink temperature Tkink {$\approx$} 220 K. A further, ancillary result is that gray models fail to reproduce basic features of atmospheric radiative cooling.},
  chapter = {Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {notion},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/CKUZ2YJB/Jeevanjee and Fueglistaler - 2020 - Simple Spectral Models for Atmospheric Radiative C.pdf}
}

@misc{jones_cloudcci_2023,
  title = {Cloud-{{CCI}}+ {{SEVIRI CRE}} Case Study Dataset},
  author = {Jones, William K.},
  year = {2023},
  month = sep,
  publisher = {{Zenodo}},
  howpublished = {Zenodo},
  doi = {10.5281/zenodo.8317025},
  urldate = {2023-09-04},
  abstract = {A dataset of tracked DCC cores and anvils over sub-Saharan Africa (approximately 18{\textdegree}W-46{\textdegree}E, 31{\textdegree}S-15{\textdegree}N)~ for four months (May 2016 to August 2016). The dataset tracks the cloud properties and their cloud radiative effect over the lifetime of each DCC. The files contained within seviri\_labels\_* contain daily data of tracked DCCs on the SEVIRI grid with spatial masks corresponding to each detected anvil and core at each time step. The files contained within seviri\_statistics contain the properties of each DCC core and anvil at each timestep along their lifetime. Each file contains all DCCs tracked within one month. This dataset accompanies the article "A Lagrangian Perspective on the Lifecycle and Cloud Radiative Effect of Deep Convective Clouds Over Africa" by William k. Jones, Martin Stengel and Philip Stier, which is to be submitted to ACP},
  keywords = {notion},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/24WMJA8E/8317025.html}
}

@article{jones_semilagrangian_2023,
  title = {A Semi-{{Lagrangian}} Method for Detecting and Tracking Deep Convective Clouds in Geostationary Satellite Observations},
  author = {Jones, William K. and Christensen, Matthew W. and Stier, Philip},
  year = {2023},
  month = mar,
  journal = {Atmospheric Measurement Techniques},
  volume = {16},
  number = {4},
  pages = {1043--1059},
  publisher = {{Copernicus GmbH}},
  issn = {1867-1381},
  doi = {10.5194/amt-16-1043-2023},
  urldate = {2023-08-16},
  abstract = {Automated methods for the detection and tracking of deep convective clouds in geostationary satellite imagery have a vital role in both the forecasting of severe storms and research into their behaviour. Studying the interactions and feedbacks between multiple deep convective clouds (DCC), however, poses a challenge for existing algorithms due to the necessary compromise between false detection and missed detection errors. We utilise an optical flow method to determine the motion of deep convective clouds in GOES-16 ABI imagery in order to construct a semi-Lagrangian framework for the motion of the cloud field, independently of the detection and tracking of cloud objects. The semi-Lagrangian framework allows severe storms to be simultaneously detected and tracked in both spatial and temporal dimensions. For the purpose of this framework we have developed a novel Lagrangian convolution method and a number of novel implementations of morphological image operations that account for the motion of observed objects. These novel methods allow the accurate extension of computer vision techniques to the temporal domain for moving objects such as DCCs. By combining this framework with existing methods for detecting DCCs (including detection of growing cores through cloud top cooling and detection of anvil clouds using brightness temperature), we show that the novel framework enables reductions in errors due to both false and missed detections compared to any of the individual methods, reducing the need to compromise when compared with existing frameworks. The novel framework enables the continuous tracking of anvil clouds associated with detected deep convection after convective activity has stopped, enabling the study of the entire life cycle of DCCs and their associated anvils. Furthermore, we expect this framework to be applicable to a wide range of cases including the detection and tracking of low-level clouds and other atmospheric phenomena. In addition, this framework may be used to combine observations from multiple sources, including satellite observations, weather radar and reanalysis model data.},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {notion},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/TYMKBUHS/Jones et al. - 2023 - A semi-Lagrangian method for detecting and trackin.pdf}
}

@misc{jones_tobacflow_2023,
  title = {Tobac-Flow v1.7.6},
  author = {Jones, William K.},
  year = {2023},
  month = jun,
  doi = {10.5281/zenodo.8317062},
  urldate = {2023-09-04},
  abstract = {Version 1.7.6 release. This version was used to perform the final dataset processing in the SEVIRI Cloud-CCI CRE case study Full Changelog: https://github.com/w-k-jones/tobac-flow/commits/v1.7.6},
  howpublished = {Zenodo},
  keywords = {notion}
}

@inproceedings{lakshmanan_extracting_2015,
  title = {Extracting the {{Climatology}} of {{Thunderstorms}}},
  booktitle = {Machine {{Learning}} and {{Data Mining Approaches}} to {{Climate Science}}: {{Proceedings}} of the 4th {{International Workshop}} on {{Climate Informatics}}},
  author = {Lakshmanan, Valliappa and Kingfield, Darrel},
  year = {2015},
  pages = {71--79},
  publisher = {{Springer}},
  keywords = {notion}
}

@article{lakshmanan_objective_2010,
  title = {An {{Objective Method}} of {{Evaluating}} and {{Devising Storm-Tracking Algorithms}}},
  author = {Lakshmanan, Valliappa and Smith, Travis},
  year = {2010},
  month = apr,
  journal = {Weather and Forecasting},
  volume = {25},
  number = {2},
  pages = {701--709},
  publisher = {{American Meteorological Society}},
  issn = {1520-0434, 0882-8156},
  doi = {10.1175/2009WAF2222330.1},
  urldate = {2023-08-16},
  abstract = {Abstract Although storm-tracking algorithms are a key ingredient of nowcasting systems, evaluation of storm-tracking algorithms has been indirect, labor intensive, or nonspecific. A set of easily computable bulk statistics that can be used to directly evaluate the performance of tracking algorithms on specific characteristics is introduced. These statistics are used to evaluate five widely used storm-tracking algorithms on a diverse set of radar reflectivity data cases. Based on this objective evaluation, a storm-tracking algorithm is devised that performs consistently and better than any of the previously suggested techniques.},
  chapter = {Weather and Forecasting},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {notion},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/7HVGCSKK/Lakshmanan and Smith - 2010 - An Objective Method of Evaluating and Devising Sto.pdf;/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/LXV38QFD/2009WAF2222330.html}
}

@article{lin_examination_2004,
  title = {Examination of the {{Decadal Tropical Mean ERBS Nonscanner Radiation Data}} for the {{Iris Hypothesis}}},
  author = {Lin, Bing and Wong, Takmeng and Wielicki, Bruce A. and Hu, Yongxiang},
  year = {2004},
  month = mar,
  journal = {Journal of Climate},
  volume = {17},
  number = {6},
  pages = {1239--1246},
  publisher = {{American Meteorological Society}},
  issn = {0894-8755, 1520-0442},
  doi = {10.1175/1520-0442(2004)017<1239:EOTDTM>2.0.CO;2},
  urldate = {2023-05-19},
  abstract = {Abstract Recent studies of the Earth Radiation Budget Satellite (ERBS) nonscanner radiation data indicate decadal changes in tropical cloudiness and unexpected radiative anomalies between the 1980s and 1990s. In this study, the ERBS decadal observations are compared with the predictions of the Iris hypothesis using 3.5-box model. To further understand the predictions, the tropical radiative properties observed from recent Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System (CERES) radiation budget experiment [the NASA Langley Research Center (LaRC) parameters] are used to replace the modeled values in the Iris hypothesis. The predicted variations of the radiation fields strongly depend on the relationship (-22\% K-1) of tropical high cloud and sea surface temperature (SST) assumed by the Iris hypothesis. On the decadal time scale, the predicted tropical mean radiative flux anomalies are generally significantly different from those of the ERBS measurements, suggesting that the decadal ERBS nonscanner radiative energy budget measurements do not support the strong negative feedback of the Iris effect. Poor agreements between the satellite data and model predictions even when the tropical radiative properties from CERES observations (LaRC parameters) are used imply that besides the Iris-modeled tropical radiative properties, the unrealistic variations of tropical high cloud generated from the detrainment of deep convection with SST assumed by the Iris hypothesis are likely to be another major factor for causing the deviation between the predictions and observations.},
  chapter = {Journal of Climate},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {notion},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/X3L7BRA9/Lin et al. - 2004 - Examination of the Decadal Tropical Mean ERBS Nons.pdf}
}

@article{lindzen_does_2001,
  title = {Does the {{Earth Have}} an {{Adaptive Infrared Iris}}?},
  author = {Lindzen, Richard S. and Chou, Ming-Dah and Hou, Arthur Y.},
  year = {2001},
  month = mar,
  journal = {Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society},
  volume = {82},
  number = {3},
  pages = {417--432},
  issn = {0003-0007},
  doi = {10.1175/1520-0477(2001)082<0417:DTEHAA>2.3.CO;2},
  urldate = {2019-05-10},
  abstract = {Observations and analyses of water vapor and clouds in the Tropics over the past decade show that the boundary between regions of high and low free-tropospheric relative humidity is sharp, and that upper-level cirrus and high free-tropospheric relative humidity tend to coincide. Most current studies of atmospheric climate feedbacks have focused on such quantities as clear sky humidity, average humidity, or differences between regions of high and low humidity, but the data suggest that another possible feedback might consist of changes in the relative areas of high and low humidity and cloudiness. Motivated by the observed relation between cloudiness (above the trade wind boundary layer) and high humidity, cloud data for the eastern part of the western Pacific from the Japanese Geostationary Meteorological Satellite-5 (which provides high spatial and temporal resolution) have been analyzed, and it has been found that the area of cirrus cloud coverage normalized by a measure of the area of cumulus coverage decreases about 22\% per degree Celsius increase in the surface temperature of the cloudy region. A number of possible interpretations of this result are examined and a plausible one is found to be that cirrus detrainment from cumulus convection diminishes with increasing temperature. The implications of such an effect for climate are examined using a simple two-dimensional radiative{\textendash}convective model. The calculations show that such a change in the Tropics could lead to a negative feedback in the global climate, with a feedback factor of about -1.1, which if correct, would more than cancel all the positive feedbacks in the more sensitive current climate models. Even if regions of high humidity were not coupled to cloudiness, the feedback factor due to the clouds alone would still amount to about -0.45, which would cancel model water vapor feedback in almost all models. This new mechanism would, in effect, constitute an adaptive infrared iris that opens and closes in order to control the Outgoing Longwave Radiation in response to changes in surface temperature in a manner similar to the way in which an eye's iris opens and closes in response to changing light levels. Not surprisingly, for upper-level clouds, their infrared effect dominates their shortwave effect. Preliminary attempts to replicate observations with GCMs suggest that models lack such a negative cloud/moist areal feedback.},
  keywords = {notion},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/ETULVMEL/Lindzen et al. - 2001 - Does the Earth Have an Adaptive Infrared Iris.pdf;/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/RHGMCMU4/1520-0477(2001)0820417DTEHAA2.3.html}
}

@article{loeb_clouds_2018,
  title = {Clouds and the {{Earth}}'s {{Radiant Energy System}} ({{CERES}}) {{Energy Balanced}} and {{Filled}} ({{EBAF}}) {{Top-of-Atmosphere}} ({{TOA}}) {{Edition-4}}.0 {{Data Product}}},
  author = {Loeb, Norman G. and Doelling, David R. and Wang, Hailan and Su, Wenying and Nguyen, Cathy and Corbett, Joseph G. and Liang, Lusheng and Mitrescu, Cristian and Rose, Fred G. and Kato, Seiji},
  year = {2018},
  month = jan,
  journal = {Journal of Climate},
  volume = {31},
  number = {2},
  pages = {895--918},
  publisher = {{American Meteorological Society}},
  issn = {0894-8755, 1520-0442},
  doi = {10.1175/JCLI-D-17-0208.1},
  urldate = {2023-05-19},
  abstract = {Abstract The Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System (CERES) Energy Balanced and Filled (EBAF) top-of-atmosphere (TOA), Edition 4.0 (Ed4.0), data product is described. EBAF Ed4.0 is an update to EBAF Ed2.8, incorporating all of the Ed4.0 suite of CERES data product algorithm improvements and consistent input datasets throughout the record. A one-time adjustment to shortwave (SW) and longwave (LW) TOA fluxes is made to ensure that global mean net TOA flux for July 2005{\textendash}June 2015 is consistent with the in situ value of 0.71 W m-2. While global mean all-sky TOA flux differences between Ed4.0 and Ed2.8 are within 0.5 W m-2, appreciable SW regional differences occur over marine stratocumulus and snow/sea ice regions. Marked regional differences in SW clear-sky TOA flux occur in polar regions and dust areas over ocean. Clear-sky LW TOA fluxes in EBAF Ed4.0 exceed Ed2.8 in regions of persistent high cloud cover. Owing to substantial differences in global mean clear-sky TOA fluxes, the net cloud radiative effect in EBAF Ed4.0 is -18 W m-2 compared to -21 W m-2 in EBAF Ed2.8. The overall uncertainty in 1{\textdegree} {\texttimes} 1{\textdegree} latitude{\textendash}longitude regional monthly all-sky TOA flux is estimated to be 3 W m-2 [one standard deviation (1{$\sigma$})] for the Terra-only period and 2.5 W m-2 for the Terra{\textendash}Aqua period both for SW and LW fluxes. The SW clear-sky regional monthly flux uncertainty is estimated to be 6 W m-2 for the Terra-only period and 5 W m-2 for the Terra{\textendash}Aqua period. The LW clear-sky regional monthly flux uncertainty is 5 W m-2 for Terra only and 4.5 W m-2 for Terra{\textendash}Aqua.},
  chapter = {Journal of Climate},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {notion},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/X73BCP2K/Loeb et al. - 2018 - Clouds and the Earth’s Radiant Energy System (CERE.pdf}
}

@inproceedings{martin_fci_2021,
  title = {{{FCI}} Instrument On-Board {{MeteoSat Third Generation}} Satellite: Design and Development Status},
  shorttitle = {{{FCI}} Instrument On-Board {{MeteoSat Third Generation}} Satellite},
  booktitle = {International {{Conference}} on {{Space Optics}} {\textemdash} {{ICSO}} 2020},
  author = {Martin, Philippe P. and Durand, Yannig and Aminou, Donny and {Gaudin-Delrieu}, Catherine and Lamard, Jean-Luc},
  year = {2021},
  month = jun,
  volume = {11852},
  pages = {125--140},
  publisher = {{SPIE}},
  doi = {10.1117/12.2599152},
  urldate = {2023-09-07},
  abstract = {2020 has been a key year in the MeteoSat Third Generation (MTG), with the integration and tests of the Flexible Combined Imager (FCI) proto-flight model(PFM). The FCI is the imaging instrument of the MeteoSat Third Generation mission, whose first satellite MTG-I1 will be launched in the second half of 2022. Its large spectral coverage, its fast and flexible scanning, associated with demanding radiometric and optical performances will allow a step forward in Europe weather nowcasting. In 2018, three complementary development models were successfully integrated and tested. The Engineering Model validated the optical and radiometric performances of the detection chain. The Structural and Thermal Model qualified the robustness of the design against launch and in-orbit environments and validated the consistency with the thermal and microvibration mathematical model predictions. The Avionic Test Bench with the software which reached a very good level of maturity, validated the control, command and data handling of the instrument. The completion of these developments enabled to successfully hold the instrument Critical Design Review (CDR) end 2018. In 2019, the two main components of the instrument, namely the telescope assembly and the detection control electronics assembly (DCEA) successfully passed the acceptance tests and have been delivered. The article will present first an overview of the instrument design and the main outcomes of the development models. Then, it will discuss the up-to-date status of the FCI PFM development. Finally, it will introduce the overall planning for the four FCI models to be delivered to the MTG-I satellite series. This work has been performed under an ESA contract to Thales Alenia Space-France.},
  keywords = {notion},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/T4X43GPN/Martin et al. - 2021 - FCI instrument on-board MeteoSat Third Generation .pdf}
}

@article{mcgarragh_community_2018,
  title = {The {{Community Cloud}} Retrieval for {{CLimate}} ({{CC4CL}}) {\textendash} {{Part}} 2: {{The}} Optimal Estimation Approach},
  shorttitle = {The {{Community Cloud}} Retrieval for {{CLimate}} ({{CC4CL}}) {\textendash} {{Part}} 2},
  author = {McGarragh, Gregory R. and Poulsen, Caroline A. and Thomas, Gareth E. and Povey, Adam C. and Sus, Oliver and Stapelberg, Stefan and Schlundt, Cornelia and Proud, Simon and Christensen, Matthew W. and Stengel, Martin and Hollmann, Rainer and Grainger, Roy G.},
  year = {2018},
  month = jun,
  journal = {Atmospheric Measurement Techniques},
  volume = {11},
  number = {6},
  pages = {3397--3431},
  issn = {1867-8548},
  doi = {10.5194/amt-11-3397-2018},
  urldate = {2023-05-24},
  abstract = {Abstract. The Community Cloud retrieval for Climate~(CC4CL) is a cloud property retrieval system for satellite-based multispectral imagers and is an important component of the Cloud Climate Change Initiative~(Cloud\_cci) project. In this paper we discuss the optimal estimation retrieval of cloud optical thickness, effective radius and cloud top pressure based on the Optimal Retrieval of Aerosol and Cloud~(ORAC) algorithm. Key to this method is the forward model, which includes the clear-sky model, the liquid water and ice cloud models, the surface model including a bidirectional reflectance distribution function~(BRDF), and the "fast" radiative transfer solution (which includes a multiple scattering treatment). All of these components and their assumptions and limitations will be discussed in detail. The forward model provides the accuracy appropriate for our retrieval method. The errors are comparable to the instrument noise for cloud optical thicknesses greater than 10. At optical thicknesses less than 10 modeling errors become more significant. The retrieval method is then presented describing optimal estimation in general, the nonlinear inversion method employed, measurement and a priori inputs, the propagation of input uncertainties and the calculation of subsidiary quantities that are derived from the retrieval results. An evaluation of the retrieval was performed using measurements simulated with noise levels appropriate for the MODIS instrument. Results show errors less than 10\,\% for cloud optical thicknesses greater than 10. Results for clouds of optical thicknesses less than 10 have errors up to 20\,\%.},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {notion},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/9M68FBY2/McGarragh et al. - 2018 - The Community Cloud retrieval for CLimate (CC4CL) .pdf}
}

@article{muller_novel_2019,
  title = {A {{Novel Approach}} for the {{Detection}} of {{Developing Thunderstorm Cells}}},
  author = {M{\"u}ller, Richard and Haussler, St{\'e}phane and Jerg, Matthias and Heizenreder, Dirk},
  year = {2019},
  month = jan,
  journal = {Remote Sensing},
  volume = {11},
  number = {4},
  pages = {443},
  doi = {10.3390/rs11040443},
  urldate = {2019-05-03},
  abstract = {This study presents a novel approach for the early detection of developing thunderstorms. To date, methods for the detection of developing thunderstorms have usually relied on accurate Atmospheric Motion Vectors (AMVs) for the estimation of the cooling rates of convective clouds, which correspond to the updraft strengths of the cloud objects. In this study, we present a method for the estimation of the updraft strength that does not rely on AMVs. The updraft strength is derived directly from the satellite observations in the SEVIRI water vapor channels. For this purpose, the absolute value of the vector product of spatio-temporal gradients of the SEVIRI water vapor channels is calculated for each satellite pixel, referred to as Normalized Updraft Strength (NUS). The main idea of the concept is that vertical updraft leads to NUS values significantly above zero, whereas horizontal cloud movement leads to NUS values close to zero. Thus, NUS is a measure of the strength of the vertical updraft and can be applied to distinguish between advection and convection. The performance of the method has been investigated for two summer periods in 2016 and 2017 by validation with lightning data. Values of the Critical Success Index (CSI) of about 66\% for 2016 and 60\% for 2017 demonstrate the good performance of the method. The Probability of Detection (POD) values for the base case are 81.8\% for 2016 and 89.2\% for 2017, respectively. The corresponding False Alarm Ratio (FAR) values are 22.6\% (2016) and 36.4\% (2017), respectively. In summary, the method has the potential to reduce forecast lead time significantly and can be quite useful in regions without a well-maintained radar network.},
  copyright = {http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {aviation,cumulonimbus,notion,stability filter,thunderstorms},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/PN8HH6NV/Müller et al. - 2019 - A Novel Approach for the Detection of Developing T.pdf;/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/J2UM4JEX/htm.html}
}

@article{muller_role_2018,
  title = {The {{Role}} of {{NWP Filter}} for the {{Satellite Based Detection}} of {{Cumulonimbus Clouds}}},
  author = {M{\"u}ller, Richard and Haussler, Stephane and Jerg, Matthias},
  year = {2018},
  month = mar,
  journal = {Remote Sensing},
  volume = {10},
  number = {3},
  pages = {386},
  doi = {10.3390/rs10030386},
  urldate = {2019-05-03},
  abstract = {This study is motivated by the great importance of Cbs for aviation safety. The study investigates the role of Numerical Weather Prediction (NWP) filtering for the remote sensing of Cumulonimbus Clouds (Cbs) by implementation of about 30 different experiments, covering Central Europe. These experiments compile different stability filter settings as well as the use of different channels for the InfraRed (IR) brightness temperatures (BT). As stability filters, parameters from Numerical Weather Prediction (NWP) are used. The application of the stability filters restricts the detection of Cbs to regions with a labile atmosphere. Various NWP filter settings are investigated in the experiments. The brightness temperature information results from the infrared (IR) Spinning Enhanced Visible and InfraRed Image (SEVIRI) instrument on-board of the Meteosat Second Generation satellite and enables the detection of very cold and high clouds close to the tropopause. Various satellite channels and BT thresholds are applied in the different experiments. The satellite only approaches (no NWP filtering) result in the detection of Cbs with a relative high probability of detection, but unfortunately combined with a large False Alarm Rate (FAR), leading to a Critical Success Index (CSI) below 60\% for the investigated summer period in 2016. The false alarms result from other types of very cold and high clouds. It is shown that the false alarms can be significantly decreased by application of an appropriate NWP stability filter, leading to the increase of CSI to about 70\% for 2016. CSI is increased from about 70 to about 75\% by application of NWP filtering for the other investigated summer period in 2017. A brief review and reflection of the literature clarify that the function of the NWP filter can not be replaced by MSG IR spectroscopy. Thus, NWP filtering is strongly recommended to increase the quality of satellite based Cb detection. Further, it has been shown that the well established convective available potential energy (CAPE) and the convection index (KO) work well as a stability filter.},
  copyright = {http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {aviation,cumulonimbus,notion,stability filter,thunderstorms},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/32IK5INC/Müller et al. - 2018 - The Role of NWP Filter for the Satellite Based Det.pdf;/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/PQFBS3VB/htm.html}
}

@article{nicholson_itcz_2018,
  title = {The {{ITCZ}} and the {{Seasonal Cycle}} over {{Equatorial Africa}}},
  author = {Nicholson, Sharon E.},
  year = {2018},
  month = feb,
  journal = {Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society},
  volume = {99},
  number = {2},
  pages = {337--348},
  publisher = {{American Meteorological Society}},
  issn = {0003-0007, 1520-0477},
  doi = {10.1175/BAMS-D-16-0287.1},
  urldate = {2023-05-24},
  abstract = {Abstract The common explanation for the progression of the rainy season over Africa is the seasonal excursion of the ITCZ. The ITCZ paradigm stems from a time when tropical rainfall was assumed to be associated mainly with localized convection. Its development was also linked to the emergence of midlatitude frontal concepts. The paradigm has numerous shortcomings, including the diversity of definitions and the large number of parameters used to identify the ITCZ. A historical look at the concept shows that its use over Africa has long been controversial, with many eminent tropical meteorologists harshly criticizing its applicability over this continent. However, the seasonal excursion of the ITCZ remains the classical explanation for African rainy seasons, especially in the equatorial region. This article underscores the shortcomings of the paradigm in equatorial Africa by examining various aspects of the circulation associated with the spatial and temporal patterns of rainfall during the equatorial rainy seasons. The overall conclusion is that a deeper understanding of the seasonal cycle in the equatorial regions of Africa still needs to be developed.},
  chapter = {Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {notion},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/TVJEHKQ4/Nicholson - 2018 - The ITCZ and the Seasonal Cycle over Equatorial Af.pdf}
}

@article{nicholson_revised_2009,
  title = {A Revised Picture of the Structure of the ``Monsoon'' and Land {{ITCZ}} over {{West Africa}}},
  author = {Nicholson, Sharon E.},
  year = {2009},
  month = jun,
  journal = {Climate Dynamics},
  volume = {32},
  number = {7},
  pages = {1155--1171},
  issn = {1432-0894},
  doi = {10.1007/s00382-008-0514-3},
  urldate = {2023-05-24},
  abstract = {This article presents an overview of the land ITCZ (Intertropical Convergence Zone) over West Africa, based on analysis of NCAR{\textendash}NCEP Reanalysis data. The picture that emerges is much different than the classic one. The most important feature is that the ITCZ is effectively independent of the system that produces most of the rainfall. Rainfall linked directly to this zone of surface convergence generally affects only the southern Sahara and the northern-most Sahel, and only in abnormally wet years in the region. A second feature is that the rainbelt normally assumed to represent the ITCZ is instead produced by a large core of ascent lying between the African Easterly Jet and the Tropical Easterly Jet. This region corresponds to the southern track of African Easterly Waves, which distribute the rainfall. This finding underscores the need to distinguish between the ITCZ and the feature better termed the ``tropical rainbelt''. The latter is conventionally but improperly used in remote sensing studies to denote the surface ITCZ over West Africa. The new picture also suggests that the moisture available for convection is strongly coupled to the strength of the uplift, which in turn is controlled by the characteristics of the African Easterly Jet and Tropical Easterly Jet, rather than by moisture convergence. This new picture also includes a circulation feature not generally considered in most analyses of the region. This feature, a low-level westerly jet termed the African Westerly Jet, plays a significant role in interannual and multidecadal variability in the Sahel region of West Africa. Included are discussions of the how this new view relates to other aspects of West Africa meteorology, such as moisture sources, rainfall production and forecasting, desertification, climate monitoring, hurricanes and interannual variability. The West African monsoon is also related to a new paradigm for examining the interannual variability of rainfall over West Africa, one that relates changes in annual rainfall to changes in either the intensity of the rainbelt or north{\textendash}south displacements of this feature. The new view presented here is consistent with a plethora of research on the synoptic and dynamic aspects of the African Easterly Waves, the disturbances that are linked to rainfall over West Africa and spawn hurricanes over the Atlantic, and with our knowledge of the prevailing synoptic and dynamic features. This article demonstrate a new aspect of the West Africa monsoon, a bimodal state, with one mode linked to dry conditions in the Sahel and the other linked to wet conditions. The switch between modes appears to be linked to an inertial instability mechanism, with the cross-equatorial pressure gradient being a critical factor. The biomodal state has been shown for the month of August only, but this month contributes most of the interannual variability. This new picture of the monsoon and interannual variability shown here appears to be relevant not only to interannual variability, but also to the multidecadal variability evidenced in the region between the 1950s and 1980s.},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {African climate,Interannual variability,ITCZ,notion,Tropical rainfall,West African monsoon},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/UWBSDJ8I/Nicholson - 2009 - A revised picture of the structure of the “monsoon.pdf}
}

@article{norris_evidence_2016,
  title = {Evidence for Climate Change in the Satellite Cloud Record},
  author = {Norris, Joel R. and Allen, Robert J. and Evan, Amato T. and Zelinka, Mark D. and O'Dell, Christopher W. and Klein, Stephen A.},
  year = {2016},
  month = aug,
  journal = {Nature},
  volume = {536},
  number = {7614},
  pages = {72--75},
  publisher = {{Nature Publishing Group}},
  issn = {1476-4687},
  doi = {10.1038/nature18273},
  urldate = {2023-09-06},
  abstract = {Satellite records show that the global pattern of cloud changes between the 1980s and the 2000s are similar to the patterns predicted by models of climate with recent external radiative forcing, and that the primary drivers of the cloud changes appear to be increasing greenhouse gas concentrations and a recovery from volcanic radiative cooling.},
  copyright = {2016 Springer Nature Limited},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {Atmospheric dynamics,Attribution,Climate and Earth system modelling,notion,Projection and prediction},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/6L5FTJFH/Norris et al. - 2016 - Evidence for climate change in the satellite cloud.pdf}
}

@article{nowicki_observations_2004,
  title = {Observations of Diurnal and Spatial Variability of Radiative Forcing by Equatorial Deep Convective Clouds},
  author = {Nowicki, Sophie M. J. and Merchant, Christopher J.},
  year = {2004},
  journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres},
  volume = {109},
  number = {D11},
  issn = {2156-2202},
  doi = {10.1029/2003JD004176},
  urldate = {2023-08-25},
  abstract = {From geostationary satellite observations of equatorial Africa and the equatorial east Atlantic during May and June 2000 we explore the radiative forcing by deep convective cloud systems in these regions. Deep convective clouds (DCCs) are associated with a mean radiative forcing relative to non{\textendash}deep convective areas of -39 W m-2 over the Atlantic Ocean and of +13 W m-2 over equatorial Africa ({$\pm$}10 W m-2 in both cases). We show that over land the timing of the daily cycle of convection relative to the daily cycle in solar illumination and surface temperature significantly affects the mean radiative forcing by DCCs. Displacement of the daily cycle of DCC coverage by 2 hours changes their overall radiative effect by {$\sim$}10 W m-2, with implications for the simulation of the radiative balance in this region. The timing of the minimum DCC cover over land, close to noon local time, means that the mean radiative forcing is nearly maximized.},
  copyright = {Copyright 2004 by the American Geophysical Union.},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {convection,diurnal cycle,notion,radiative forcing},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/R5FPLMXZ/Nowicki and Merchant - 2004 - Observations of diurnal and spatial variability of.pdf;/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/SS5PPYRU/2003JD004176.html}
}

@article{nunezocasio_tracking_2020,
  title = {Tracking {{Mesoscale Convective Systems}} That Are {{Potential Candidates}} for {{Tropical Cyclogenesis}}},
  author = {N{\'u}{\~n}ez Ocasio, Kelly M. and Evans, Jenni L. and Young, George S.},
  year = {2020},
  month = feb,
  journal = {Monthly Weather Review},
  volume = {148},
  number = {2},
  pages = {655--669},
  publisher = {{American Meteorological Society}},
  issn = {1520-0493, 0027-0644},
  doi = {10.1175/MWR-D-19-0070.1},
  urldate = {2023-08-16},
  abstract = {Abstract This study introduces the development of the Tracking Algorithm for Mesoscale Convective Systems (TAMS), an algorithm that allows for the identifying, tracking, classifying, and assigning of rainfall to mesoscale convective systems (MCSs). TAMS combines area-overlapping and projected-cloud-edge tracking techniques to maximize the probability of detecting the progression of a convective system through time, accounting for splits and mergers. The combination of projection on area overlapping is equivalent to setting the background flow in which MCSs are moving on. Sensitivity tests show that area-overlapping technique with no projection (thus, no background flow) underestimates the real propagation speed of MCSs over Africa. The MCS life cycles and propagation derived using TAMS are consistent with climatology. The rainfall assignment is also more reliable than with previous methods as it utilizes a combination of regridding through linear interpolation with high temporal and spatial resolution data. This makes possible the identification of extreme rainfall events associated with intense MCSs more effectively. TAMS will be utilized in future work to build an AEW{\textendash}MCS dataset to study tropical cyclogenesis.},
  chapter = {Monthly Weather Review},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {notion},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/3JUR3R86/Ocasio et al. - 2020 - Tracking Mesoscale Convective Systems that are Pot.pdf}
}

@misc{orac-cc_oraccc_2023,
  title = {{{ORAC-CC}}/Orac},
  author = {{ORAC-CC}},
  year = {2023},
  month = aug,
  urldate = {2023-09-04},
  abstract = {Optimal Retrieval of Aerosol and Cloud},
  copyright = {GPL-3.0},
  keywords = {notion}
}

@article{protopapadaki_upper_2017,
  title = {Upper Tropospheric Cloud Systems Derived from {{IR}} Sounders: Properties of Cirrus Anvils in the Tropics},
  shorttitle = {Upper Tropospheric Cloud Systems Derived from {{IR}} Sounders},
  author = {Protopapadaki, Sofia E. and Stubenrauch, Claudia J. and Feofilov, Artem G.},
  year = {2017},
  month = mar,
  journal = {Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics},
  volume = {17},
  number = {6},
  pages = {3845--3859},
  publisher = {{Copernicus GmbH}},
  issn = {1680-7316},
  doi = {10.5194/acp-17-3845-2017},
  urldate = {2023-05-18},
  abstract = {Representing about 30 \% of the Earth's total cloud cover, upper tropospheric clouds play a crucial role in the climate system by modulating the Earth's energy budget and heat transport. When originating from convection, they often form organized systems. The high spectral resolution of the Atmospheric Infrared Sounder (AIRS) allows reliable cirrus identification, both from day and nighttime observations. Tropical upper tropospheric cloud systems have been analyzed by using a spatial composite technique on the retrieved cloud pressure of AIRS data. Cloud emissivity is used to distinguish convective core, cirrus and thin cirrus anvil within these systems. A comparison with simultaneous precipitation data from the Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer {\textendash} Earth Observing System (AMSR-E) shows that, for tropical upper tropospheric clouds, a cloud emissivity close to 1 is strongly linked to a high rain rate, leading to a proxy to identify convective cores. Combining AIRS cloud data with this cloud system approach, using physical variables, provides a new opportunity to relate the properties of the anvils, including also the thinner cirrus, to the convective cores. It also distinguishes convective cloud systems from isolated cirrus systems. Deep convective cloud systems, covering 15 \% of the tropics, are further distinguished into single-core and multi-core systems. Though AIRS samples the tropics only twice per day, the evolution of longer-living convective systems can be still statistically captured, and we were able to select relatively mature single-core convective systems by using the fraction of convective core area within the cloud systems as a proxy for maturity. For these systems, we have demonstrated that the physical properties of the anvils are related to convective depth, indicated by the minimum retrieved cloud temperature within the convective core. Our analyses show that the size of the systems does in general increase with convective depth, though for similar convective depth oceanic convective cloud systems are slightly larger than continental ones, in agreement with other observations. In addition, our data reveal for the first time that the fraction of thin cirrus over the total anvil area increases with the convective depth similarly for oceanic and continental convective systems. This has implications for the radiative feedbacks of anvils on convection which will be more closely studied in the future.},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {notion},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/MLMQBCK3/Protopapadaki et al. - 2017 - Upper tropospheric cloud systems derived from IR s.pdf}
}

@article{ramanathan_cloudradiative_1989,
  title = {Cloud-{{Radiative Forcing}} and {{Climate}}: {{Results}} from the {{Earth Radiation Budget Experiment}}},
  shorttitle = {Cloud-{{Radiative Forcing}} and {{Climate}}},
  author = {Ramanathan, V. and Cess, R. D. and Harrison, E. F. and Minnis, P. and Barkstrom, B. R. and Ahmad, E. and Hartmann, D.},
  year = {1989},
  month = jan,
  journal = {Science},
  volume = {243},
  number = {4887},
  pages = {57--63},
  publisher = {{American Association for the Advancement of Science}},
  doi = {10.1126/science.243.4887.57},
  urldate = {2023-05-24},
  abstract = {The study of climate and climate change is hindered by a lack of information on the effect of clouds on the radiation balance of the earth, referred to as the cloud-radiative forcing. Quantitative estimates of the global distributions of cloud-radiative forcing have been obtained from the spaceborne Earth Radiation Budget Experiment (ERBE) launched in 1984. For the April 1985 period, the global shortwave cloud forcing [-44.5 watts per square meter (W/m2)] due to the enhancement of planetary albedo, exceeded in magnitude the longwave cloud forcing (31.3 W/m2) resulting from the greenhouse effect of clouds. Thus, clouds had a net cooling effect on the earth. This cooling effect is large over the mid- and high-latitude oceans, with values reaching -100 W/m2. The monthly averaged longwave cloud forcing reached maximum values of 50 to 100 W/m2 over the convectively disturbed regions of the tropics. However, this heating effect is nearly canceled by a correspondingly large negative shortwave cloud forcing, which indicates the delicately balanced state of the tropics. The size of the observed net cloud forcing is about four times as large as the expected value of radiative forcing from a doubling of CO2. The shortwave and longwave components of cloud forcing are about ten times as large as those for a CO2 doubling. Hence, small changes in the cloud-radiative forcing fields can play a significant role as a climate feedback mechanism. For example, during past glaciations a migration toward the equator of the field of strong, negative cloud-radiative forcing, in response to a similar migration of cooler waters, could have significantly amplified oceanic cooling and continental glaciation.},
  keywords = {notion}
}

@article{ramanathan_thermodynamic_1991a,
  title = {Thermodynamic Regulation of Ocean Warming by Cirrus Clouds Deduced from Observations of the 1987 {{El Ni{\~n}o}}},
  author = {Ramanathan, V. and Collins, W.},
  year = {1991},
  month = may,
  journal = {Nature},
  volume = {351},
  number = {6321},
  pages = {27--32},
  publisher = {{Nature Publishing Group}},
  issn = {1476-4687},
  doi = {10.1038/351027a0},
  urldate = {2023-09-06},
  abstract = {Observations made during the 1987 El Ni{\~n}o show that in the upper range of sea surface temperatures, the greenhouse effect increases with surface temperature at a rate which exceeds the rate at which radiation is being emitted from the surface. In response to this 'super greenhouse effect', highly reflective cirrus clouds are produced which act like a thermostat shielding the ocean from solar radiation. The regulatory effect of these cirrus clouds may limit sea surface temperatures to less than 305 K.},
  copyright = {1991 Springer Nature Limited},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {Humanities and Social Sciences,multidisciplinary,notion,Science},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/VAV7NLUF/Ramanathan and Collins - 1991 - Thermodynamic regulation of ocean warming by cirru.pdf}
}

@article{riehl_heat_1958,
  title = {On the {{Heat Balance}} in the {{Equatorial Trough Zone}}},
  author = {Riehl, Herbert and Malkus, Joanne S.},
  year = {1958},
  journal = {Geophysica},
  volume = {6},
  number = {3--4},
  urldate = {2023-08-31},
  keywords = {notion},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/MMJSKMU2/RiehlMalkus1958.pdf}
}

@article{roberts_nowcasting_2003,
  title = {Nowcasting {{Storm Initiation}} and {{Growth Using GOES-8}} and {{WSR-88D Data}}},
  author = {Roberts, Rita D. and Rutledge, Steven},
  year = {2003},
  month = aug,
  journal = {Weather and Forecasting},
  volume = {18},
  number = {4},
  pages = {562--584},
  publisher = {{American Meteorological Society}},
  issn = {1520-0434, 0882-8156},
  doi = {10.1175/1520-0434(2003)018<0562:NSIAGU>2.0.CO;2},
  urldate = {2022-05-02},
  abstract = {Abstract The evolution of cumulus clouds over a variety of radar-detected, boundary layer convergence features in eastern Colorado has been examined using Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) imagery and Weather Surveillance Radar-1988 Doppler (WSR-88D) data. While convective storms formed above horizontal rolls in the absence of any additional surface forcing, the most intense storms initiated in regions above: gust fronts, gust front interaction with horizontal rolls, and terrain-induced stationary convergence zones. The onset of vigorous cloud growth leading to storm development was characterized by cloud tops that reached subfreezing temperatures and exhibited large cooling rates at cloud top 15 min prior to the first detection of 10-dBZ radar echoes aloft and 30 min before 35 dBZ. The rate of cloud-top temperature change was found to be important for discriminating between weakly precipitating storms ({$<$}35 dBZ) and vigorous convective storms ({$>$}35 dBZ). Results from this study have been used to increase the lead time of thunderstorm initiation nowcasts with the NCAR automated, convective storm nowcasting system. This improvement is demonstrated at two operational forecast offices in Virginia and New Mexico.},
  chapter = {Weather and Forecasting},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {notion},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/53VIBWTF/Roberts and Rutledge - 2003 - Nowcasting Storm Initiation and Growth Using GOES-.pdf;/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/FTRTWVUZ/1520-0434_2003_018_0562_nsiagu_2_0_co_2.html}
}

@article{roca_simple_2017,
  title = {A {{Simple Model}} of the {{Life Cycle}} of {{Mesoscale Convective Systems Cloud Shield}} in the {{Tropics}}},
  author = {Roca, R. and Fiolleau, T. and Bouniol, D.},
  year = {2017},
  month = feb,
  journal = {Journal of Climate},
  volume = {30},
  number = {11},
  pages = {4283--4298},
  issn = {0894-8755},
  doi = {10.1175/JCLI-D-16-0556.1},
  urldate = {2019-05-10},
  abstract = {Mesoscale convective systems (MCSs) are important to the water and energy budget of the tropical climate and are essential ingredients of the tropical circulation. MCSs are readily observed in satellite infrared geostationary imagery as cloud clusters that evolve in time from small structures to well-organized large patches of cloud shield before dissipating. The MCS cloud shield is the result of a large ensemble of mesoscale dynamical, thermodynamical, and microphysical processes. This study shows that a simple parametric model can summarize the time evolution of the morphological characteristics of the cloud shield during the life cycle of the MCS. It consists of a growth{\textendash}decay linear model of the cloud shield and is based on three parameters: the time of maximum extent, the maximum extent, and the duration of the MCS. It is shown that the time of maximum is frequently close to the middle of the life cycle and that the correlation between maximum extent and duration is strong all over the tropics. This suggests that 1 degree of freedom is left to summarize the life cycle of the MCS cloud shield. Such a model fits the observed MCS equally well, independent of the duration, size, location, and propagation characteristics, and its relevance is assessed for a large number of MCSs over three boreal summer periods over the whole tropical belt. The scaling of this simple model exhibits weak (strong) regional variability for the short- (long-) lived systems indicative of the primary importance of the internal dynamics of the systems to the large-scale environment for MCS sustainability.},
  keywords = {notion},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/MDPSYCRB/Roca et al. - 2017 - A Simple Model of the Life Cycle of Mesoscale Conv.pdf;/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/53EUQH7Y/JCLI-D-16-0556.html}
}

@article{seeley_fat_2019,
  title = {{{FAT}} or {{FiTT}}: {{Are Anvil Clouds}} or the {{Tropopause Temperature Invariant}}?},
  shorttitle = {{{FAT}} or {{FiTT}}},
  author = {Seeley, Jacob T. and Jeevanjee, Nadir and Romps, David M.},
  year = {2019},
  journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},
  volume = {46},
  number = {3},
  pages = {1842--1850},
  issn = {1944-8007},
  doi = {10.1029/2018GL080096},
  urldate = {2023-06-06},
  abstract = {The Fixed Anvil Temperature (FAT) hypothesis proposes that upper tropospheric cloud fraction peaks at a special isotherm that is independent of surface temperature. It has been argued that a FAT should result from simple ingredients: Clausius-Clapeyron, longwave emission from water vapor, and tropospheric energy and mass balance. Here the first cloud-resolving simulations of radiative-convective equilibrium designed to contain only these basic ingredients are presented. This setup does not produce a FAT: the anvil temperature varies by about 40\% of the surface temperature range. However, the tropopause temperature varies by only 4\% of the surface temperature range, which supports the existence of a Fixed Tropopause Temperature (FiTT). In full-complexity radiative-convective equilibrium simulations, the spread in anvil temperature is smaller by about a factor of 2, but the tropopause temperature remains more invariant than the anvil temperature by an order of magnitude. In other words, our simulations have a FiTT, not a FAT.},
  copyright = {{\textcopyright}2019. American Geophysical Union. All Rights Reserved.},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {anvil clouds,climate change,cloud feedbacks,global warming,notion},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/F2XE6Z9R/Seeley et al. - 2019 - FAT or FiTT Are Anvil Clouds or the Tropopause Te.pdf;/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/YK5IXENG/2018GL080096.html}
}

@article{seeley_formation_2019,
  title = {Formation of {{Tropical Anvil Clouds}} by {{Slow Evaporation}}},
  author = {Seeley, Jacob T. and Jeevanjee, Nadir and Langhans, Wolfgang and Romps, David M.},
  year = {2019},
  journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},
  volume = {46},
  number = {1},
  pages = {492--501},
  issn = {1944-8007},
  doi = {10.1029/2018GL080747},
  urldate = {2023-09-06},
  abstract = {Tropical anvil clouds play a large role in the Earth's radiation balance, but their effect on global warming is uncertain. The conventional paradigm for these clouds attributes their existence to the rapidly declining convective mass flux below the tropopause, which implies a large source of detraining cloudy air there. Here we test this paradigm by manipulating the sources and sinks of cloudy air in cloud-resolving simulations. We find that anvils form in our simulations because of the long lifetime of upper-tropospheric cloud condensates, not because of an enhanced source of cloudy air below the tropopause. We further show that cloud lifetimes are long in the cold upper troposphere because the saturation specific humidity is much smaller there than the condensed water loading of cloudy updrafts, which causes evaporative cloud decay to act very slowly. Our results highlight the need for novel cloud-fraction schemes that align with this decay-centric framework for anvil clouds.},
  copyright = {{\textcopyright}2019. American Geophysical Union. All Rights Reserved.},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {anvil clouds,cloud decay,cloud feedback,detrainment,notion},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/YTQKT2PZ/Seeley et al. - 2019 - Formation of Tropical Anvil Clouds by Slow Evapora.pdf;/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/8CDYNYKU/2018GL080747.html}
}

@article{seeley_why_2015,
  title = {Why Does Tropical Convective Available Potential Energy ({{CAPE}}) Increase with Warming?},
  author = {Seeley, Jacob T. and Romps, David M.},
  year = {2015},
  journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},
  volume = {42},
  number = {23},
  pages = {10,429--10,437},
  issn = {1944-8007},
  doi = {10.1002/2015GL066199},
  urldate = {2023-09-06},
  abstract = {Recent work has produced a theory for tropical convective available potential energy (CAPE) that highlights the Clausius-Clapeyron (CC) scaling of the atmosphere's saturation deficit as a driver of increases in CAPE with warming. Here we test this so-called ``zero-buoyancy'' theory for CAPE by modulating the saturation deficit of cloud-resolving simulations of radiative-convective equilibrium in two ways: changing the sea surface temperature (SST) and changing the environmental relative humidity (RH). For earthlike and warmer SSTs, undilute parcel buoyancy in the lower troposphere is insensitive to increasing SST because of a countervailing CC scaling that balances the increase in the saturation deficit; however, buoyancy increases dramatically with SST in the upper troposphere. Conversely, in the RH experiment, undilute buoyancy throughout the troposphere increases monotonically with decreasing RH. We show that the zero-buoyancy theory successfully predicts these contrasting behaviors, building confidence that it describes the fundamental physics of CAPE and its response to warming.},
  copyright = {{\textcopyright}2015. American Geophysical Union. All Rights Reserved.},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {buoyancy,global warming,notion,tropical convection},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/54DGVL8V/Seeley and Romps - 2015 - Why does tropical convective available potential e.pdf;/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/J2PDF4FX/Seeley and Romps - 2015 - Why does tropical convective available potential e.pdf;/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/T89PCTNP/2015GL066199.html}
}

@article{seidel_temperatures_2022,
  title = {Temperatures of {{Anvil Clouds}} and {{Radiative Tropopause}} in a {{Wide Array}} of {{Cloud-Resolving Simulations}}},
  author = {Seidel, Seth D. and Yang, Da},
  year = {2022},
  month = nov,
  journal = {Journal of Climate},
  volume = {35},
  number = {24},
  pages = {8065--8078},
  publisher = {{American Meteorological Society}},
  issn = {0894-8755, 1520-0442},
  doi = {10.1175/JCLI-D-21-0962.1},
  urldate = {2024-02-01},
  abstract = {Abstract We present 123 cloud-resolving simulations to study how temperatures of anvil clouds and radiative tropopause (RT) change with surface warming. Our simulation results show that the RT warms at approximately the same rate as anvil clouds. This relationship persists across a variety of modeling choices, including surface temperature, greenhouse gas concentration, and the representation of radiative transfer. We further show that the shifting ozone profile associated with climate warming may give rise to a fixed RT temperature as well as a fixed anvil temperature. This result points to the importance of faithful treatment of ozone in simulating clouds and climate change; the robust anvil{\textendash}RT relationship may also provide alternative ways to understand what controls anvil temperature.},
  chapter = {Journal of Climate},
  langid = {english},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/P9F56MKI/Seidel and Yang - 2022 - Temperatures of Anvil Clouds and Radiative Tropopa.pdf}
}

@article{sherwood_assessment_2020,
  title = {An {{Assessment}} of {{Earth}}'s {{Climate Sensitivity Using Multiple Lines}} of {{Evidence}}},
  author = {Sherwood, S. C. and Webb, M. J. and Annan, J. D. and Armour, K. C. and Forster, P. M. and Hargreaves, J. C. and Hegerl, G. and Klein, S. A. and Marvel, K. D. and Rohling, E. J. and Watanabe, M. and Andrews, T. and Braconnot, P. and Bretherton, C. S. and Foster, G. L. and Hausfather, Z. and {von der Heydt}, A. S. and Knutti, R. and Mauritsen, T. and Norris, J. R. and Proistosescu, C. and Rugenstein, M. and Schmidt, G. A. and Tokarska, K. B. and Zelinka, M. D.},
  year = {2020},
  journal = {Reviews of Geophysics},
  volume = {58},
  number = {4},
  pages = {e2019RG000678},
  issn = {1944-9208},
  doi = {10.1029/2019RG000678},
  urldate = {2023-09-05},
  abstract = {We assess evidence relevant to Earth's equilibrium climate sensitivity per doubling of atmospheric CO2, characterized by an effective sensitivity S. This evidence includes feedback process understanding, the historical climate record, and the paleoclimate record. An S value lower than 2 K is difficult to reconcile with any of the three lines of evidence. The amount of cooling during the Last Glacial Maximum provides strong evidence against values of S greater than 4.5 K. Other lines of evidence in combination also show that this is relatively unlikely. We use a Bayesian approach to produce a probability density function (PDF) for S given all the evidence, including tests of robustness to difficult-to-quantify uncertainties and different priors. The 66\% range is 2.6{\textendash}3.9 K for our Baseline calculation and remains within 2.3{\textendash}4.5 K under the robustness tests; corresponding 5{\textendash}95\% ranges are 2.3{\textendash}4.7 K, bounded by 2.0{\textendash}5.7 K (although such high-confidence ranges should be regarded more cautiously). This indicates a stronger constraint on S than reported in past assessments, by lifting the low end of the range. This narrowing occurs because the three lines of evidence agree and are judged to be largely independent and because of greater confidence in understanding feedback processes and in combining evidence. We identify promising avenues for further narrowing the range in S, in particular using comprehensive models and process understanding to address limitations in the traditional forcing-feedback paradigm for interpreting past changes.},
  copyright = {{\textcopyright}2020. American Geophysical Union. All Rights Reserved.},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {Bayesian methods,Climate,climate sensitivity,global warming,notion},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/AFH4EWKP/Sherwood et al. - 2020 - An Assessment of Earth's Climate Sensitivity Using.pdf;/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/5XQI3EGA/2019RG000678.html}
}

@article{sokol_tropical_2020,
  title = {Tropical {{Anvil Clouds}}: {{Radiative Driving Toward}} a {{Preferred State}}},
  shorttitle = {Tropical {{Anvil Clouds}}},
  author = {Sokol, Adam B. and Hartmann, Dennis L.},
  year = {2020},
  journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres},
  volume = {125},
  number = {21},
  pages = {e2020JD033107},
  issn = {2169-8996},
  doi = {10.1029/2020JD033107},
  urldate = {2022-06-14},
  abstract = {The evolution of anvil clouds detrained from deep convective systems has important implications for the tropical energy balance and is thought to be shaped by radiative heating. We use combined radar-lidar observations and a radiative transfer model to investigate the influence of radiative heating on anvil cloud altitude, thickness, and microphysical structure. We find that high clouds with an optical depth between 1 and 2 are prevalent in tropical convective regions and can persist far from any convective source. These clouds are generally located at higher altitudes than optically thicker clouds, experience strong radiative heating, and contain high concentrations of ice crystals indicative of turbulence. These findings support the hypothesis that anvil clouds are driven toward and maintained at a preferred optical thickness that corresponds to a positive cloud radiative effect. Comparison of daytime and nighttime observations suggests that anvil thinning proceeds more rapidly at night, when net radiative cooling promotes the sinking of cloud top. It is hypothesized that the properties of aged anvil clouds and their susceptibility to radiative destabilization are shaped by the time of day at which the cloud was detrained. These results underscore the importance of small-scale processes in determining the radiative effect of tropical convection.},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {A-train,anvil clouds,cirrus clouds,climate,cloud radiative effects,notion,tropical convection},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/UT6GD4QH/Sokol and Hartmann - 2020 - Tropical Anvil Clouds Radiative Driving Toward a .pdf;/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/5KE4MZDZ/2020JD033107.html}
}

@article{stephens_cloudsat_2018,
  title = {{{CloudSat}} and {{CALIPSO}} within the {{A-Train}}: {{Ten Years}} of {{Actively Observing}} the {{Earth System}}},
  shorttitle = {{{CloudSat}} and {{CALIPSO}} within the {{A-Train}}},
  author = {Stephens, Graeme and Winker, David and Pelon, Jacques and Trepte, Charles and Vane, Deborah and Yuhas, Cheryl and L'Ecuyer, Tristan and Lebsock, Matthew},
  year = {2018},
  month = mar,
  journal = {Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society},
  volume = {99},
  number = {3},
  pages = {569--581},
  publisher = {{American Meteorological Society}},
  issn = {0003-0007, 1520-0477},
  doi = {10.1175/BAMS-D-16-0324.1},
  urldate = {2023-05-24},
  abstract = {Abstract One of the most successful demonstrations of an integrated approach to observe Earth from multiple perspectives is the A-Train satellite constellation. The science enabled by this constellation flourished with the introduction of the two active sensors carried by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) CloudSat and the NASA{\textendash}Centre National d'{\'E}tudes Spatiales (CNES) Cloud{\textendash}Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observations (CALIPSO) satellites that were launched together on 28 April 2006. These two missions have provided a 10-yr demonstration of coordinated formation flying that made it possible to develop integrated products and that offered new insights into key atmospheric processes. The progress achieved over this decade of observations, summarized in this paper, clearly demonstrate the fundamental importance of the vertical structure of clouds and aerosol for understanding the influences of the larger-scale atmospheric circulation on aerosol, the hydrological cycle, the cloud-scale physics, and the formation of the major storm systems of Earth. The research also underscored inherent ambiguities in radiance data in describing cloud properties and how these active systems have greatly enhanced passive observation. It is now clear that monitoring the vertical structure of clouds and aerosol is essential, and a climate data record is now being constructed. These pioneering efforts are to be continued with the Earth Clouds, Aerosol and Radiation Explorer (EarthCARE) mission planned for launch in 2019.},
  chapter = {Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {notion},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/C8UVX4SV/Stephens et al. - 2018 - CloudSat and CALIPSO within the A-Train Ten Years.pdf}
}

@article{stephens_parameterization_2001,
  title = {Parameterization of {{Atmospheric Radiative Transfer}}. {{Part I}}: {{Validity}} of {{Simple Models}}},
  shorttitle = {Parameterization of {{Atmospheric Radiative Transfer}}. {{Part I}}},
  author = {Stephens, Graeme L. and Gabriel, Philip M. and Partain, Philip T.},
  year = {2001},
  month = nov,
  journal = {Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences},
  volume = {58},
  number = {22},
  pages = {3391--3409},
  issn = {0022-4928},
  doi = {10.1175/1520-0469(2001)058<3391:POARTP>2.0.CO;2},
  urldate = {2019-05-10},
  abstract = {This paper outlines a radiation parameterization method for deriving broadband fluxes that is currently being implemented in a number of global and regional atmospheric models. The rationale for the use of the 2-stream method as a way of solving the radiative transfer problem for broadband solar and longwave fluxes is presented. This rationale is based on assessment of these models in the context of a novel method of classifying radiative transfer problems that more clearly identifies the types of problems encountered in calculating globally distributed broadband fluxes. The delta-Eddington model (DEM) and the constant-hemispheric 2-stream models (CHMs) are shown to be superior to other 2-stream methods of solution under this classification and also superior to 4-stream solutions for the many classes of problems relevant to modeling the global atmosphere. These two methods are used to construct a radiation model of broadband solar and IR fluxes based on the k-distribution data of Fu and Liou. When tested against available line-by-line (LBL) and other reference model calculations of broadband fluxes, it is shown that (i) comparisons of CHM top-of-atmosphere (TOA) clear-sky longwave fluxes with fluxes obtained from LBL models agree within approximately 1{\textendash}2 W m-2. The agreement with LBL clear-sky fluxes at the surface, typically within 5 W m-2, is compromised by the specific form of continuum absorption parameterization adopted. (ii) The clear- and cloudy-sky solar fluxes and heating rates agree remarkably with a reference doubling{\textendash}adding multiple scattering model. The rms TOA flux difference under all-sky conditions is approximately 6 W m-2; the layer-mean heating rate difference is 0.1 K day-1. (iii) The effect of IR scattering by clouds is shown to produce a bias when neglected that generally exceeds the model-to-model differences presented. Neglect of IR scattering produces a global bias in the calculated outgoing longwave radiation (OLR) of approximately -8 W m-2 (i.e., the nonscattering models calculated an OLR that is larger than what the scattering models calculated by this amount). Locally, the TOA bias may approach 20 W m-2. The associated bias in surface longwave fluxes varies in magnitude between 2 and 5 W m-2. It was also shown how the computational effort required to produce broadband fluxes varies linearly with the number of model layers. This is an important characteristic given the increasing tendency for increasing the vertical resolution of atmospheric models.},
  keywords = {notion},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/YVAEP49U/Stephens et al. - 2001 - Parameterization of Atmospheric Radiative Transfer.pdf;/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/8N4X3RAA/1520-0469(2001)0583391POARTP2.0.html}
}

@article{storelvmo_cloud_2015a,
  title = {Cloud {{Phase Changes Induced}} by {{CO2 Warming}}{\textemdash}a {{Powerful}} yet {{Poorly Constrained Cloud-Climate Feedback}}},
  author = {Storelvmo, Trude and Tan, Ivy and Korolev, Alexei V.},
  year = {2015},
  month = dec,
  journal = {Current Climate Change Reports},
  volume = {1},
  number = {4},
  pages = {288--296},
  issn = {2198-6061},
  doi = {10.1007/s40641-015-0026-2},
  urldate = {2023-09-06},
  abstract = {We review a cloud feedback mechanism that has so far been considered of secondary importance, despite a body of research suggesting that it represents a powerful climate feedback that can control the sign of the overall cloud feedback simulated in global climate models (GCMs). The feedback mechanism is associated with phase changes in clouds triggered by a warming atmosphere, which in turn yields optically thicker clouds. Output from the latest generation of GCMs suggest that this is the dominant cloud feedback at high latitudes, with obvious implications for climatically sensitive regions such as the Arctic and the Southern Ocean. Here, we present an overview of the relatively few modeling studies that have investigated this particular feedback mechanism to date, along with new results suggesting that the cloud-climate feedback simulated by a GCM can change dramatically depending on its cloud phase partitioning.},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {Cloud phase,Cloud-climate feedback,Clouds,Global climate modeling,notion,Satellite observations},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/ABVUPFMC/Storelvmo et al. - 2015 - Cloud Phase Changes Induced by CO2 Warming—a Power.pdf}
}

@article{sus_community_2018,
  title = {The {{Community Cloud}} Retrieval for {{CLimate}} ({{CC4CL}}) {\textendash} {{Part}} 1: {{A}} Framework Applied to Multiple Satellite Imaging Sensors},
  shorttitle = {The {{Community Cloud}} Retrieval for {{CLimate}} ({{CC4CL}}) {\textendash} {{Part}} 1},
  author = {Sus, Oliver and Stengel, Martin and Stapelberg, Stefan and McGarragh, Gregory and Poulsen, Caroline and Povey, Adam C. and Schlundt, Cornelia and Thomas, Gareth and Christensen, Matthew and Proud, Simon and Jerg, Matthias and Grainger, Roy and Hollmann, Rainer},
  year = {2018},
  month = jun,
  journal = {Atmospheric Measurement Techniques},
  volume = {11},
  number = {6},
  pages = {3373--3396},
  publisher = {{Copernicus GmbH}},
  issn = {1867-1381},
  doi = {10.5194/amt-11-3373-2018},
  urldate = {2023-05-24},
  abstract = {We present here the key features of the Community Cloud retrieval for CLimate (CC4CL) processing algorithm. We focus on the novel features of the framework: the optimal estimation approach in general, explicit uncertainty quantification through rigorous propagation of all known error sources into the final product, and the consistency of our long-term, multi-platform time series provided at various resolutions, from 0.5 to 0.02{$\circ$}.  By describing all key input data and processing steps, we aim to inform the user about important features of this new retrieval framework and its potential applicability to climate studies. We provide an overview of the retrieved and derived output variables. These are analysed for four, partly very challenging, scenes collocated with CALIOP (Cloud-Aerosol lidar with Orthogonal Polarization) observations in the high latitudes and over the Gulf of Guinea{\textendash}West Africa.  The results show that CC4CL provides very realistic estimates of cloud top height and cover for optically thick clouds but, where optically thin clouds overlap, returns a height between the two layers. CC4CL is a unique, coherent, multi-instrument cloud property retrieval framework applicable to passive sensor data of several EO missions. Through its flexibility, CC4CL offers the opportunity for combining a variety of historic and current EO missions into one dataset, which, compared to single sensor retrievals, is improved in terms of accuracy and temporal sampling.},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {notion},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/B4N8YSFX/Sus et al. - 2018 - The Community Cloud retrieval for CLimate (CC4CL) .pdf}
}

@article{takahashi_level_2017,
  title = {Level of Neutral Buoyancy, Deep Convective Outflow, and Convective Core: {{New}} Perspectives Based on 5 Years of {{CloudSat}} Data},
  shorttitle = {Level of Neutral Buoyancy, Deep Convective Outflow, and Convective Core},
  author = {Takahashi, Hanii and Luo, Zhengzhao Johnny and Stephens, Graeme L.},
  year = {2017},
  journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres},
  volume = {122},
  number = {5},
  pages = {2958--2969},
  issn = {2169-8996},
  doi = {10.1002/2016JD025969},
  urldate = {2023-08-31},
  abstract = {This paper is the follow on to a previous publication by the authors, which investigated the relationship between the level of neutral buoyancy (LNB) determined from the ambient sounding and the actual outflow levels using mainly CloudSat observations. The goal of the current study is to provide a more complete characterization of LNB, deep convective outflow, and convective core, and the relationship among them, as well as the dependence on environmental parameters and convective system size. A proxy is introduced to estimate convective entrainment, namely, the difference between the LNB (based on the ambient sounding) and the actual outflow height. The principal findings are as follows: (1) Deep convection over the Warm Pool has larger entrainment rates and smaller convective cores than the counterpart over the two tropical land regions (Africa and Amazonia), lending observational support to a long-standing assumption in convection models concerning the negative relationship between the two parameters. (2) The differences in internal vertical structure of convection between the two tropical land regions and the Warm Pool suggest that deep convection over the two tropical land regions contains more intense cores. (3) Deep convective outflow occurs at a higher level when the midtroposphere is more humid and the convective system size is smaller. The convective system size dependence is postulated to be related to convective lifecycle, highlighting the importance of cloud life stage information in interpretation of snapshot measurements by satellite. Finally, implications of the study to global modeling are discussed.},
  copyright = {{\textcopyright}2017. American Geophysical Union. All Rights Reserved.},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {CloudSat,convective dilution,deep convective outflow,level of neutral buoyancy,notion,the internal vertical structure of deep convection},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/9QE8HJKK/Takahashi et al. - 2017 - Level of neutral buoyancy, deep convective outflow.pdf;/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/DJTAURSV/2016JD025969.html}
}

@article{takahashi_revisiting_2023,
  title = {Revisiting the {{Land-Ocean Contrasts}} in {{Deep Convective Cloud Intensity Using Global Satellite Observations}}},
  author = {Takahashi, Hanii and Luo, Zhengzhao Johnny and Stephens, Graeme and Mulholland, Jake P.},
  year = {2023},
  journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},
  volume = {50},
  number = {5},
  pages = {e2022GL102089},
  issn = {1944-8007},
  doi = {10.1029/2022GL102089},
  urldate = {2023-05-24},
  abstract = {Tropical convection tends to be more intense over land than ocean, but why? Numerous previous studies have investigated the causes of this difference. This paper revisits this question using CloudSat data and focuses on interconnecting various environmental parameters and cloud properties, which have often been examined in a piecemeal way in the past. Our analysis shows that if convection is treated as a process by which potential energy (convective available potential energy) is converted to kinetic energy (vertical velocity), then the conversion is more efficient over land than ocean. A key factor that affects this conversion efficiency is the lifting condensation level (LCL). Higher LCLs over land give rise to broader dry boundary layer thermals that transition to wider deep convective cores. Wider cores, in turn, are better protected from the dilution by entrainment, thus leading to stronger updrafts. This study highlights the importance of the dry stage of convection.},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {CAPE,CloudSat,convective intensity,deep convection,land-ocean contrast,LCL,notion},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/97N627QA/Takahashi et al. - 2023 - Revisiting the Land-Ocean Contrasts in Deep Convec.pdf;/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/25BR4VL7/2022GL102089.html}
}

@article{takahashi_when_2019,
  title = {When {{Will Spaceborne Cloud Radar Detect Upward Shifts}} in {{Cloud Heights}}?},
  author = {Takahashi, Hanii and Lebsock, Matthew D. and Richardson, Mark and Marchand, Roger and Kay, Jennifer E.},
  year = {2019},
  journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres},
  volume = {124},
  number = {13},
  pages = {7270--7285},
  issn = {2169-8996},
  doi = {10.1029/2018JD030242},
  urldate = {2023-09-05},
  abstract = {Cloud feedbacks remain the largest source of uncertainty in future climate predictions. Simulations robustly project an increase in cloud height, which is supported by some observational evidence. However, how much of this increasing trend is due to climate warming and how much is due to multiyear natural variability still remains unclear because of the brevity of existing observational records. Here we estimate when the signal will become detectable at 95\% confidence by existing radar technology. We use output from a Representative Concentration Pathway 8.5 Community Earth System Model version 1 simulation in a Monte Carlo analysis to determine (1) what is the first year at which changes in the altitude of high cloud can be confidently estimated if we continue to fly W-band cloud radar, (2) what radar sensitivity is required to detect those changes, and (3) at what latitude will we first detect these changes? In Community Earth System Model version 1 a cloud radar record would be able to confidently detect upward shifts in cloud height over 20{\textendash}60{\textdegree}N before 2030 for a radar with a sensitivity of -15 dBZ and stable calibration errors of {$\pm$}0.25 dBZ. Furthermore, vertical resolution could be degraded to 1.6 km with little effect on detection year. Results are more sensitive to the magnitude of calibration errors than to the minimum detectable echo. Our earlier midlatitude detection contrasts with a previous lidar-based analysis, which may be due to radar detecting different parts of the clouds and our use of simulations that account for changing geographical patterns of forced warming through time.},
  copyright = {{\textcopyright}2019. American Geophysical Union. All Rights Reserved.},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {CESM1,future climate,notion,upward shifts in cloud heights,W-band cloud radar},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/NAK7PTV7/Takahashi et al. - 2019 - When Will Spaceborne Cloud Radar Detect Upward Shi.pdf;/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/WBL2583L/2018JD030242.html}
}

@article{tan_increases_2015,
  title = {Increases in Tropical Rainfall Driven by Changes in Frequency of Organized Deep Convection},
  author = {Tan, Jackson and Jakob, Christian and Rossow, William B. and Tselioudis, George},
  year = {2015},
  month = mar,
  journal = {Nature},
  volume = {519},
  number = {7544},
  pages = {451--454},
  issn = {1476-4687},
  doi = {10.1038/nature14339},
  urldate = {2019-04-09},
  abstract = {Increasing global precipitation has been associated with a warming climate resulting from a strengthening of the hydrological cycle1. This increase, however, is not spatially uniform. Observations and models have found that changes in rainfall show patterns characterized as `wet-gets-wetter'1,2,3,4,5,6,7 and `warmer-gets-wetter'5,8,9. These changes in precipitation are largely located in the tropics and hence are probably associated with convection. However, the underlying physical processes for the observed changes are not entirely clear. Here we show from observations that most of the regional increase in tropical precipitation is associated with changes in the frequency of organized deep convection. By assessing the contributions of various convective regimes to precipitation, we find that the spatial patterns of change in the frequency of organized deep convection are strongly correlated with observed change in rainfall, both positive and negative (correlation of 0.69), and can explain most of the patterns of increase in rainfall. In contrast, changes in less organized forms of deep convection or changes in precipitation within organized deep convection contribute less to changes in precipitation. Our results identify organized deep convection as the link between changes in rainfall and in the dynamics of the tropical atmosphere, thus providing a framework for obtaining a better understanding of changes in rainfall. Given the lack of a distinction between the different degrees of organization of convection in climate models10, our results highlight an area of priority for future climate model development in order to achieve accurate rainfall projections in a warming climate.},
  copyright = {2015 Nature Publishing Group},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {notion},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/ZBJ3JQVT/Tan et al. - 2015 - Increases in tropical rainfall driven by changes i.pdf;/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/GB2T2BLN/nature14339.html}
}

@article{taylor_evaluating_2017,
  title = {Evaluating the Diurnal Cycle in Cloud Top Temperature from {{SEVIRI}}},
  author = {Taylor, Sarah and Stier, Philip and White, Bethan and Finkensieper, Stephan and Stengel, Martin},
  year = {2017},
  month = jun,
  journal = {Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics},
  volume = {17},
  number = {11},
  pages = {7035--7053},
  issn = {1680-7316},
  doi = {10.5194/acp-17-7035-2017},
  urldate = {2019-05-10},
  abstract = {{$<$}p{$><$}strong{$>$}Abstract.{$<$}/strong{$>$} The variability of convective cloud spans a wide range of temporal and spatial scales and is of fundamental importance for global weather and climate systems. Datasets from geostationary satellite instruments such as the Spinning Enhanced Visible and Infrared Imager (SEVIRI) provide high-time-resolution observations across a large area. In this study we use data from SEVIRI to quantify the diurnal cycle of cloud top temperature within the instrument's field of view and discuss these results in relation to retrieval biases. {$<$}br{$><$}br{$>$} We evaluate SEVIRI cloud top temperatures from the new CLAAS-2 (CLoud property dAtAset using SEVIRI, Edition 2) dataset against Cloud-Aerosol Lidar with Orthogonal Polarization (CALIOP) data. Results show a mean bias of +0.44K with a standard deviation of 11.7K, which is in agreement with previous validation studies. Analysis of the spatio-temporal distribution of these errors shows that absolute retrieval biases vary from less than 5K over the southeast Atlantic Ocean up to 30K over central Africa at night. Night- and daytime retrieval biases can also differ by up to 30K in some areas, potentially contributing to biases in the estimated amplitude of the diurnal cycle. This illustrates the importance of considering spatial and diurnal variations in retrieval errors when using the CLAAS-2 dataset. {$<$}br{$><$}br{$>$} Keeping these biases in mind, we quantify the seasonal, diurnal, and spatial variation of cloud top temperature across SEVIRI's field of view using the CLAAS-2 dataset. By comparing the mean diurnal cycle of cloud top temperature with the retrieval bias, we find that diurnal variations in the retrieval bias can be small but are often of the same order of magnitude as the amplitude of the observed diurnal cycle, indicating that in some regions the diurnal cycle apparent in the observations may be significantly impacted by diurnal variability in the accuracy of the retrieval. {$<$}br{$><$}br{$>$} We show that the CLAAS-2 dataset can measure the diurnal cycle of cloud tops accurately in regions of stratiform cloud such as the southeast Atlantic Ocean and Europe, where cloud top temperature retrieval biases are small and exhibit limited spatial and temporal variability. Quantifying the diurnal cycle over the tropics and regions of desert is more difficult, as retrieval biases are larger and display significant diurnal variability. CLAAS-2 cloud top temperature data are found to be of limited skill in measuring the diurnal cycle accurately over desert regions. In tropical regions such as central Africa, the diurnal cycle can be described by the CLAAS-2 data to some extent, although retrieval biases appear to reduce the amplitude of the real diurnal cycle of cloud top temperatures. {$<$}br{$><$}br{$>$} This is the first study to relate the diurnal variations in SEVIRI retrieval bias to observed diurnal cycles in cloud top temperature. Our results may be of interest to those in the observation and modelling communities when using cloud top properties data from SEVIRI, particularly for studies considering the diurnal cycle of convection.{$<$}/p{$>$}},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {notion},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/TXN3UL6Y/Taylor et al. - 2017 - Evaluating the diurnal cycle in cloud top temperat.pdf;/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/VT9PIR2X/2017.html}
}

@article{vecchi_global_2007,
  title = {Global {{Warming}} and the {{Weakening}} of the {{Tropical Circulation}}},
  author = {Vecchi, Gabriel A. and Soden, Brian J.},
  year = {2007},
  month = sep,
  journal = {Journal of Climate},
  volume = {20},
  number = {17},
  pages = {4316--4340},
  publisher = {{American Meteorological Society}},
  issn = {0894-8755, 1520-0442},
  doi = {10.1175/JCLI4258.1},
  urldate = {2023-09-06},
  abstract = {Abstract This study examines the response of the tropical atmospheric and oceanic circulation to increasing greenhouse gases using a coordinated set of twenty-first-century climate model experiments performed for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fourth Assessment Report (AR4). The strength of the atmospheric overturning circulation decreases as the climate warms in all IPCC AR4 models, in a manner consistent with the thermodynamic scaling arguments of Held and Soden. The weakening occurs preferentially in the zonally asymmetric (i.e., Walker) rather than zonal-mean (i.e., Hadley) component of the tropical circulation and is shown to induce substantial changes to the thermal structure and circulation of the tropical oceans. Evidence suggests that the overall circulation weakens by decreasing the frequency of strong updrafts and increasing the frequency of weak updrafts, although the robustness of this behavior across all models cannot be confirmed because of the lack of data. As the climate warms, changes in both the atmospheric and ocean circulation over the tropical Pacific Ocean resemble ``El Ni{\~n}o{\textendash}like'' conditions; however, the mechanisms are shown to be distinct from those of El Ni{\~n}o and are reproduced in both mixed layer and full ocean dynamics coupled climate models. The character of the Indian Ocean response to global warming resembles that of Indian Ocean dipole mode events. The consensus of model results presented here is also consistent with recently detected changes in sea level pressure since the mid{\textendash}nineteenth century.},
  chapter = {Journal of Climate},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {notion},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/FFI52W52/Vecchi and Soden - 2007 - Global Warming and the Weakening of the Tropical C.pdf}
}

@article{vizy_understanding_2019,
  title = {Understanding the Summertime Diurnal Cycle of Precipitation over Sub-{{Saharan West Africa}}: Regions with Daytime Rainfall Peaks in the Absence of Significant Topographic Features},
  shorttitle = {Understanding the Summertime Diurnal Cycle of Precipitation over Sub-{{Saharan West Africa}}},
  author = {Vizy, Edward K. and Cook, Kerry H.},
  year = {2019},
  month = mar,
  journal = {Climate Dynamics},
  volume = {52},
  number = {5},
  pages = {2903--2922},
  issn = {1432-0894},
  doi = {10.1007/s00382-018-4315-z},
  urldate = {2023-05-24},
  abstract = {Convection-permitting regional model output is analyzed to better understand the diurnal cycle of rainfall during the height of the West African summer monsoon. This investigation focuses on two regions, the western Bod{\'e}l{\'e} of Chad and eastern Burkina Faso, that have a propensity for daytime rainfall, but why this occurs does not conform to our conventional understanding of being directly associated with the presence of significant topographic feature(s). The August diurnal cycle of rainfall for the Bod{\'e}l{\'e} is characterized by an afternoon peak, with mesoscale convective systems (MCSs) originating within 500~km accounting for 80\% of the afternoon precipitation. These MCSs are associated with a deepening of the monsoon trough over the western Sahara related to northern storm track African easterly wave (AEW) disturbance activity, combined with anomalous ridging over eastern Chad associated with cold pool outflow from convection that originates over the Marra Mountains the previous afternoon. These circulation features enhance the moist low-level southwesterly flow and increase instability over the Bod{\'e}l{\'e}. Over Burkina Faso rainfall has a primary afternoon peak, and a secondary morning peak. MCSs account for 95\% of the total rainfall. Morning rainfall is primarily due to MCSs forming over the Damergou Gap of Niger, while the afternoon rainfall is associated with MCSs that originate over the Damergou Gap as well as locally. While both types of MCSs are associated with an approaching southern storm track AEW disturbance, it is differences in northern storm track activity that helps explain why some MCSs originate over the Damergou Gap.},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {African easterly jet,African easterly wave disturbance,Cold pool outflow,Convection permitting modeling,Diurnal cycle of precipitation,Inter-tropical front,MCS genesis,Mesoscale convective system,notion,Sahel,West Africa},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/3PGNBSSN/Vizy and Cook - 2019 - Understanding the summertime diurnal cycle of prec.pdf}
}

@article{vondou_seasonal_2010,
  title = {Seasonal Variations in the Diurnal Patterns of Convection in {{Cameroon}}{\textendash}{{Nigeria}} and Their Neighboring Areas},
  author = {Vondou, Derbetini A. and Nzeukou, Armand and Lenouo, Andr{\'e} and Mkankam Kamga, F.},
  year = {2010},
  journal = {Atmospheric Science Letters},
  volume = {11},
  number = {4},
  pages = {290--300},
  issn = {1530-261X},
  doi = {10.1002/asl.297},
  urldate = {2023-05-24},
  abstract = {High-resolution (5-km, 30-min) Meteosat 7 infrared images are used to document seasonal variations of the diurnal cycle of convective activity over Cameroon and Nigeria during the period 1998-2002. Cloud fraction, considered to diagnose the properties of cold clouds, is derived by using a threshold of brightness temperatures less than 235 K, thus providing a detailed view of regional differences in the diurnal patterns. The features of the diurnal cycle of convection were investigated for six sampled regions. Over land, the diurnal cycle of convection is mainly controlled by the radiative heating and associated low-level destabilization. Strong spatial variations exist in the seasonal amplitude of diurnal cycle, highlighting that complex orography, land-sea contrast and coastline curvature play an important role in modulating the spatial and diurnal patterns of convection. There is consistent noon diurnal peak without obvious seasonal variations of the phase over the ocean. Copyright {\textcopyright} 2010 Royal Meteorological Society},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {cloud fraction,convection,diurnal cycle,meteosat,notion},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/9H3VGNC7/Vondou et al. - 2010 - Seasonal variations in the diurnal patterns of con.pdf;/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/SXKZ39Z6/asl.html}
}

@article{wall_balanced_2018,
  title = {Balanced {{Cloud Radiative Effects Across}} a {{Range}} of {{Dynamical Conditions Over}} the {{Tropical West Pacific}}},
  author = {Wall, Casey J. and Hartmann, Dennis L.},
  year = {2018},
  journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},
  volume = {45},
  number = {20},
  pages = {11,490--11,498},
  issn = {1944-8007},
  doi = {10.1029/2018GL080046},
  urldate = {2023-05-24},
  abstract = {Instantaneous relationships between clouds and large-scale vertical motion are used to study the impact of circulation on the near cancellation of cloud radiative effects that is observed over the tropical west Pacific Ocean. The coverage of deep-convective clouds increases with stronger upward motion, but the proportion of thick, medium, and thin anvil cloud remains nearly constant. Thus, when averaging over scales larger than individual storms, the top-of-atmosphere net radiation is only weakly sensitive to the large-scale flow. The balance in cloud radiative effects is therefore maintained across a wide range of large-scale circulations. The ability of the Community Atmosphere Model Version 5 to reproduce the observed cloud-circulation relationships is investigated. The simulated convective clouds substantially overestimate the proportion of deep and optically thick cloud and underestimate the proportion of anvil cirrus. These results demonstrate that simulating key properties of deep-convective clouds remains challenging for some state-of-the-art climate models.},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {clouds,notion,tropical convection},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/HEJY63I3/Wall and Hartmann - 2018 - Balanced Cloud Radiative Effects Across a Range of.pdf;/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/EVF6NSIC/2018GL080046.html}
}

@article{wall_observational_2020,
  title = {Observational {{Evidence}} That {{Radiative Heating Modifies}} the {{Life Cycle}} of {{Tropical Anvil Clouds}}},
  author = {Wall, Casey J. and Norris, Joel R. and Gasparini, Bla{\v z} and Smith, William L. and Thieman, Mandana M. and Sourdeval, Odran},
  year = {2020},
  month = oct,
  journal = {Journal of Climate},
  volume = {33},
  number = {20},
  pages = {8621--8640},
  publisher = {{American Meteorological Society}},
  issn = {0894-8755, 1520-0442},
  doi = {10.1175/JCLI-D-20-0204.1},
  urldate = {2023-09-06},
  abstract = {Abstract A variety of satellite and ground-based observations are used to study how diurnal variations of cloud radiative heating affect the life cycle of anvil clouds over the tropical western Pacific Ocean. High clouds thicker than 2 km experience longwave heating at cloud base, longwave cooling at cloud top, and shortwave heating at cloud top. The shortwave and longwave effects have similar magnitudes during midday, but only the longwave effect is present at night, so high clouds experience a substantial diurnal cycle of radiative heating. Furthermore, anvil clouds are more persistent or laterally expansive during daytime. This cannot be explained by variations of convective intensity or geographic patterns of convection, suggesting that shortwave heating causes anvil clouds to persist longer or spread over a larger area. It is then investigated if shortwave heating modifies anvil development by altering turbulence in the cloud. According to one theory, radiative heating drives turbulent overturning within anvil clouds that can be sufficiently vigorous to cause ice nucleation in the updrafts, thereby extending the cloud lifetime. High-frequency air motion and ice-crystal number concentration are shown to be inversely related near cloud top, however. This suggests that turbulence depletes or disperses ice crystals at a faster rate than it nucleates them, so another mechanism must cause the diurnal variation of anvil clouds. It is hypothesized that radiative heating affects anvil development primarily by inducing a mesoscale circulation that offsets gravitational settling of cloud particles.},
  chapter = {Journal of Climate},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {notion},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/DV3KA7X2/Wall et al. - 2020 - Observational Evidence that Radiative Heating Modi.pdf}
}

@article{wang_observational_2020,
  title = {An {{Observational Comparison}} of {{Level}} of {{Neutral Buoyancy}} and {{Level}} of {{Maximum Detrainment}} in {{Tropical Deep Convective Clouds}}},
  author = {Wang, Di{\'e} and Jensen, Michael P. and D'Iorio, Jennifer A. and Jozef, Gina and Giangrande, Scott E. and Johnson, Karen L. and Luo, Zhengzhao Johnny and Starzec, Mariusz and Mullendore, Gretchen L.},
  year = {2020},
  journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres},
  volume = {125},
  number = {16},
  pages = {e2020JD032637},
  issn = {2169-8996},
  doi = {10.1029/2020JD032637},
  urldate = {2023-09-06},
  abstract = {Tropical deep convective clouds are important drivers of large-scale atmospheric circulation representing the main vertical transport pathway through the depth of the troposphere for heat, momentum, water, and chemical species. The strength and depth of this transport are impacted by the convective updraft size and intensity that are driven by buoyancy, dynamical forcing, and mixing of environmental air, that is, entrainment. In this study, we identify tropical deep convective systems with well-defined forward anvils using Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) ground-based profiling radars, at three ARM fixed sites in the Tropical Western Pacific (TWP; i.e., Manus, Nauru, and Darwin) and three ARM Mobile Facility deployments in Niamey, Niger; Gan Island, Maldives; and Manacapuru, Brazil. We use the difference between the level of neutral buoyancy (LNB) and the level of maximum detrainment (LMD) as a proxy for the effective bulk convective entrainment ({$\epsilon$}proxy). The LNB, the theoretical height that a parcel raised above the level of free convection would reach with no mixing, is calculated based on preconvection radiosonde measurements using parcel theory. The LMD is the height of the maximum reflectivity observed in forward anvil clouds by profiling radars. Deep convective systems over the TWP show higher LNBs that extend to 16.3 km on average and larger {$\epsilon$}proxy (median value of LNB minus LMD up to 6.5 km) compared to their continental counterparts in the Amazon and West Africa. Oceanic conditions show larger convective available potential energy (CAPE) coupled with higher moisture at low levels, which favors larger {$\epsilon$}proxy. In contrast, continental cases initiate and develop, under high convective inhibition, steeper environmental lapse rate, and high wind shear conditions, which show smaller offset between LNB and LMD. Deep convective cases that promote significant cold pools at the surface experience less {$\epsilon$}proxy. Using a Random Forest regression algorithm, CAPE is associated with the highest feature importance score for predicting convective {$\epsilon$}proxy, followed by low-level relative humidity. For continental cases, the low-level wind shear also indicates higher importance.},
  copyright = {{\textcopyright}2020. American Geophysical Union. All Rights Reserved.},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {ARM profiling radar,CAPE,deep convection,entrainment,level of maximum detrainment,level of neutral buoyancy,notion},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/BJBFAHLG/Wang et al. - 2020 - An Observational Comparison of Level of Neutral Bu.pdf;/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/4PHATZAH/2020JD032637.html}
}

@incollection{weisman_mesoscale_2015,
  title = {{{MESOSCALE METEOROLOGY}} | {{Convective Storms}}: {{Overview}}},
  shorttitle = {{{MESOSCALE METEOROLOGY}} | {{Convective Storms}}},
  booktitle = {Encyclopedia of {{Atmospheric Sciences}} ({{Second Edition}})},
  author = {Weisman, M. L.},
  editor = {North, Gerald R. and Pyle, John and Zhang, Fuqing},
  year = {2015},
  month = jan,
  pages = {401--410},
  publisher = {{Academic Press}},
  address = {{Oxford}},
  doi = {10.1016/B978-0-12-382225-3.00490-4},
  urldate = {2019-05-10},
  isbn = {978-0-12-382225-3},
  keywords = {notion},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/T74FU9CE/B9780123822253004904.html}
}

@article{westra_future_2014,
  title = {Future Changes to the Intensity and Frequency of Short-Duration Extreme Rainfall},
  author = {Westra, S. and Fowler, H. J. and Evans, J. P. and Alexander, L. V. and Berg, P. and Johnson, F. and Kendon, E. J. and Lenderink, G. and Roberts, N. M.},
  year = {2014},
  journal = {Reviews of Geophysics},
  volume = {52},
  number = {3},
  pages = {522--555},
  issn = {1944-9208},
  doi = {10.1002/2014RG000464},
  urldate = {2023-05-24},
  abstract = {Evidence that extreme rainfall intensity is increasing at the global scale has strengthened considerably in recent years. Research now indicates that the greatest increases are likely to occur in short-duration storms lasting less than a day, potentially leading to an increase in the magnitude and frequency of flash floods. This review examines the evidence for subdaily extreme rainfall intensification due to anthropogenic climate change and describes our current physical understanding of the association between subdaily extreme rainfall intensity and atmospheric temperature. We also examine the nature, quality, and quantity of information needed to allow society to adapt successfully to predicted future changes, and discuss the roles of observational and modeling studies in helping us to better understand the physical processes that can influence subdaily extreme rainfall characteristics. We conclude by describing the types of research required to produce a more thorough understanding of the relationships between local-scale thermodynamic effects, large-scale atmospheric circulation, and subdaily extreme rainfall intensity.},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {Clausius-Clapeyron scaling,climate change,convection,downscaling,notion,rainfall extremes,subdaily rainfall},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/W7Q56C3T/Westra et al. - 2014 - Future changes to the intensity and frequency of s.pdf;/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/JETMD72H/2014RG000464.html}
}

@article{yang_diurnal_2001,
  title = {The {{Diurnal Cycle}} in the {{Tropics}}},
  author = {Yang, Gui-Ying and Slingo, Julia},
  year = {2001},
  month = apr,
  journal = {Monthly Weather Review},
  volume = {129},
  number = {4},
  pages = {784--801},
  publisher = {{American Meteorological Society}},
  issn = {1520-0493, 0027-0644},
  doi = {10.1175/1520-0493(2001)129<0784:TDCITT>2.0.CO;2},
  urldate = {2023-09-05},
  abstract = {Abstract A global archive of high-resolution (3-hourly, 0.5{\textdegree} latitude{\textendash}longitude grid) window (11{\textendash}12 {$\mu$}m) brightness temperature (Tb) data from multiple satellites is being developed by the European Union Cloud Archive User Service (CLAUS) project. It has been used to construct a climatology of the diurnal cycle in convection, cloudiness, and surface temperature for all regions of the Tropics. An example of the application of the climatology to the evaluation of the climate version of the U.K. Met. Office Unified Model (UM), version HadAM3, is presented. The characteristics of the diurnal cycle described by the CLAUS data agree with previous observational studies, demonstrating the universality of the characteristics of the diurnal cycle for land versus ocean, clear sky versus convective regimes. It is shown that oceanic deep convection tends to reach its maximum in the early morning. Continental convection generally peaks in the evening, although there are interesting regional variations, indicative of the effects of complex land{\textendash}sea and mountain{\textendash}valley breezes, as well as the life cycle of mesoscale convective systems. A striking result from the analysis of the CLAUS data has been the extent to which the strong diurnal signal over land is spread out over the adjacent oceans, probably through gravity waves of varying depths. These coherent signals can be seen for several hundred kilometers and in some instances, such as over the Bay of Bengal, can lead to substantial diurnal variations in convection and precipitation. The example of the use of the CLAUS data in the evaluation of the Met. Office UM has demonstrated that the model has considerable difficulty in capturing the observed phase of the diurnal cycle in convection, which suggests some fundamental difficulties in the model's physical parameterizations. Analysis of the diurnal cycle represents a powerful tool for identifying and correcting model deficiencies.},
  chapter = {Monthly Weather Review},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {notion},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/WX6X7AG6/Yang and Slingo - 2001 - The Diurnal Cycle in the Tropics.pdf}
}

@article{zelinka_why_2010,
  title = {Why Is Longwave Cloud Feedback Positive?},
  author = {Zelinka, Mark D. and Hartmann, Dennis L.},
  year = {2010},
  journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres},
  volume = {115},
  number = {D16},
  issn = {2156-2202},
  doi = {10.1029/2010JD013817},
  urldate = {2023-05-24},
  abstract = {Longwave cloud feedback is systematically positive and nearly the same magnitude across all global climate models used in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report (AR4). Here it is shown that this robust positive longwave cloud feedback is caused in large part by the tendency for tropical high clouds to rise in such a way as to remain at nearly the same temperature as the climate warms. Furthermore, it is shown that such a cloud response to a warming climate is consistent with well-known physics, specifically the requirement that, in equilibrium, tropospheric heating by convection can only be large in the altitude range where radiative cooling is efficient, following the fixed anvil temperature hypothesis of Hartmann and Larson (2002). Longwave cloud feedback computed assuming that high-cloud temperature follows upper tropospheric convergence-weighted temperature, which we refer to as proportionately higher anvil temperature, gives an excellent prediction of the longwave cloud feedback in the AR4 models. The ensemble-mean feedback of 0.5 W m-2 K-1 is much larger than that calculated assuming clouds remain at fixed pressure, highlighting the large contribution from rising cloud tops to the robustly positive feedback. An important result of this study is that the convergence profile computed from clear-sky energy and mass balance warms slightly as the climate warms, in proportion to the increase in stability, which results in a longwave cloud feedback that is slightly smaller than that calculated assuming clouds remain at fixed temperature.},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {cloud,feedback,notion},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/HK2TU8EV/Zelinka and Hartmann - 2010 - Why is longwave cloud feedback positive.pdf;/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/SV5E3LM6/2010JD013817.html}
}

@article{zinner_cbtram_2008,
  title = {Cb-{{TRAM}}: {{Tracking}} and Monitoring Severe Convection from Onset over Rapid Development to Mature Phase Using Multi-Channel {{Meteosat-8 SEVIRI}} Data},
  shorttitle = {Cb-{{TRAM}}},
  author = {Zinner, T. and Mannstein, H. and Tafferner, A.},
  year = {2008},
  month = oct,
  journal = {Meteorology and Atmospheric Physics},
  volume = {101},
  number = {3},
  pages = {191--210},
  issn = {1436-5065},
  doi = {10.1007/s00703-008-0290-y},
  urldate = {2023-08-16},
  abstract = {Cb-TRAM is a new fully automated tracking and nowcasting algorithm. Intense convective cells are detected, tracked and discriminated with respect to onset, rapid development, and mature phase. The detection is based on Meteosat-8 SEVIRI (Spinning Enhanced Visible and Infra-Red Imager) data from the broad band high resolution visible, infra-red 6.2\,{\textmu}m (water vapour), and the infra-red 10.8\,{\textmu}m channels. In addition, tropopause temperature data from ECMWF operational model analyses is utilised as an adaptive detection criterion. The tracking is based on geographical overlap between current detections and first guess patterns of cells predicted from preceeding time steps. The first guess patterns as well as short range forecast extrapolations are obtained with the aid of a new image matching algorithm providing complete fields of approximate differential cloud motion. Based on these motion vector fields interpolation and extrapolation of satellite data are obtained which allow to generate synthetic intermediate data fields between two known fields as well as nowcasts of motion and development of detected areas. Examples of the application of Cb-TRAM and a comparison to precipitation radar and lightning data as independent data sources demonstrate the capabilities of the new technique.},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {Cell Pattern,Lightning Activity,notion,Precipitation Radar,Pyramid Level,Radar},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/47WZY9FD/Zinner et al. - 2008 - Cb-TRAM Tracking and monitoring severe convection.pdf}
}

@article{zinner_validation_2013,
  title = {Validation of the {{Meteosat}} Storm Detection and Nowcasting System {{Cb-TRAM}} with Lightning Network Data \&ndash; {{Europe}} and {{South Africa}}},
  author = {Zinner, T. and Forster, C. and de Coning, E. and Betz, H.-D.},
  year = {2013},
  month = jun,
  journal = {Atmospheric Measurement Techniques},
  volume = {6},
  number = {6},
  pages = {1567--1583},
  issn = {1867-1381},
  doi = {10.5194/amt-6-1567-2013},
  urldate = {2020-01-23},
  abstract = {{$<$}p{$><$}strong{$>$}Abstract.{$<$}/strong{$>$} In this paper, recent changes to the Meteosat thunderstorm TRacking And Monitoring algorithm (Cb-TRAM) are presented as well as a validation of Cb-TRAM against data from the European ground-based LIghtning NETwork (LINET) of Nowcast GmbH and the South African Weather Service Lightning Detection Network (SAWS LDN). Validation is conducted along the well-known skill measures probability of detection (POD) and false alarm ratio (FAR) on the basis of Meteosat/SEVIRI pixels as well as on the basis of thunderstorm objects. The values obtained demonstrate specific limitations of Cb-TRAM, as well as limitations of satellite methods in general which are based on thermal emission and solar reflectivity information from thunderstorm cloud tops. {$<$}br{$><$}br{$>$} Although the climatic conditions and the occurrence of thunderstorms are quite different for Europe and South Africa, quality score values are similar. Our conclusion is that Cb-TRAM provides robust results of well-defined quality for very different climatic regimes. The POD for a thunderstorm with intense lightning is about 80\% during the day. The FAR for a Cb-TRAM detection which is not even close to intense lightning is about 50\%. If only proximity to any lightning activity is required, FAR is much lower at about 15\%. Pixel-based analysis shows that detected thunderstorm object size is not indiscriminately large, but well within physical limitations of the satellite method. Night-time POD and FAR are somewhat worse as the detection scheme does not use the high-resolution visible information during night-time hours. Nowcasting scores show useful values up to approximately 30 min in advance.{$<$}/p{$>$}},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {notion},
  file = {/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/RHJUXQUP/Zinner et al. - 2013 - Validation of the Meteosat storm detection and now.pdf;/Users/jonesw/Zotero/storage/QCYUHJQC/2013.html}
}